African Americans and World War II Author(s): Andrew E. Kersten Source: OAH Magazine of History, Vol. 16, No. 3, World War II Homefront (Spring, 2002), pp. 13-17 Published by: Organization of American Historians Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163520 . Accessed: 26/01/2011 11:55 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=oah. 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When the Second World War began with the German started to focus attention on the black experience during the early invasion of Poland in 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt earnest to on a war 1940s, examining both the battle and homefronts. At first, began in put the country footing. For the a historians concluded that this period constituted watershed in average American, the results of the defense preparedness pro history. They maintained that African American men and women gram were dramatic and beneficial. By the time of the Pearl made major advances as workers and military personnel and that Harbor attack in late 1941, conversion to war production was across communities the occurring nationwide. Gi United States witnessed a gantic factories such as the dramatic rise in black social one at Willow Run near activism and political par Detroit were built, and ticipation. Over time, how American workers as well ever, historians have as businessmen profited tempered their enthusiasm from the increased eco for this interpretation. So nomic activity. Unemploy cial, economic, and politi ment rapidly decreased cal were often lost in from in gains fsflilHi W- $'- ::^%-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HHBBRr1 8,120,000 persons some the postwar period, 1940 to 5,560,000 in 1941 thing which contributed to to 2,660,000 in 1942. More the disillusionment and over, union membership upheaval of the 1960s. Still, rose from roughly 8 million there is no denying the im in 1940 to 10 million in portance of the war years. 1941 (2). Accompanying the global But not all felt the re conflict were transforma turn of prosperity equally. tions in employment, geog Some Americans, blacks in raphy, and social status that particular, were left behind permanently affected not Guy L. Miles, a skilled machine operator, makes parts for medium tanks at the as the economy geared up Pressed Steel Can in 1942. of War only African Americans but Company Chicago, Illinois,September (Office for war. Since the 1920s, Information, LC-USE6-D-005951) all Americans in general. African Americans had suf Thus the Second World fered from high rates of un War may not be a watershed, but itwas an unprecedented era in employment. 1920 was a high water mark for black employment which African Americans sought a "Double V," a victory over inAmerican industry. The Great Depression however, had wiped fascism abroad and apartheid at home. out these advances. Despite the New Deal's assistance, black and other minority workers languished through the lean and stagnant OAH Magazine of History Spring 2002 13 two terms. years of Roosevelt's first As the United States prepared government. To enforce the policy, FDR set up an executive war at for the end of FDR's second term, they were again left out agency, the Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC), that in the cold (3). accomplished much during the war. With no more than one war As American industry converted to production, African hundred and twenty officials, the FEPC exposed prejudice in the treatment new war some Americans demanded equal in obtaining the industries and broke racial barriers, processing over was not jobs. At first, that forthcoming. Less than six months twelve thousand complaints of discrimination and settling nearly after the bombing of Pearl five thousand to its satis Harbor, a little over faction. The committee half?144,583 out of also vigorously pursued an 282,245?prospective educational campaign in war-related job openings order to create more har were reserved for whites monious industrial rela only. Moreover, blatant tions between white and was job discrimination minority workers. a not merely southern ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K\DBiSHBb?*jil^ME^^^V^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^IAbove all, the FEPC in phenomenon. In Texas, fluenced the course of African Americans were civil rights reform as it over barred from 9,000 became a postwar model out of the 17,435 open for city, state, and fed ings (52 percent) for de eral efforts against em fense jobs. In Michigan p 1 o y m e n t the figure was 22,042 out discrimination (5). of 26,904 (82 percent); Despite its successes, in Ohio, 29,242 out of the Fair Employment Prac 34,861 (84 percent); and tice Committee did not rid in Indiana, 9,331 out of American society of job 9,979 (94 percent) (4). bias. At most, it opened Even before the Japanese some new opportunities attack on Hawaii, civil where there previously had rights leaders and orga been none. Nevertheless, nizations sought to end African American work discrimination in em ers rushed to fill these new ployment and the mili employment openings, of tary. In January 1941, one ten moving from their black leader, A. Philip homes in the South to cit Randolph, president of ies in the Midwest, North, the Brotherhood of and West. During the war, an Sleeping Car Porters, the black population of San over nounced that if the Francisco increased by Roosevelt administration five hundred percent. In did not take action theWillow Run area near against discrimination in Detroit, the percentage the defense program he growth of African Ameri cans was ten would parade one hun nearly times dred thousand African that of whites (6). These Americans down Penn job seekers were at times sylvania Avenue inWashington, D.C, on 1 July 1941. Through frustrated by discrimination and yet often with the assistance of that winter and spring, Roosevelt and his advisors negotiated the FEPC and civil rights organizations, such as the National with Randolph without result. Finally, on 25 June 1941?six Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) days before the scheduled protest march?FDR issued Executive and the National Urban League, African Americans found war Order 8802 banning employment discrimination because of jobs. In addition to well paying defense jobs, black migrants, race, creed, color, or national origin for employers with defense especially to northern and western cities, found it possible to contracts, labor unions, and civilian agencies of the federal escape the oppressions brought by Jim Crow. Marion Clark, 14 OAH Magazine of History Spring 2002 daughter of John Clark, head of the St. Louis Urban League, man's war." More commonly, cynicism produced scathing edito provides an illustrative example. In 1942, Marion moved to rials and newspaper articles condemning the hypocrisy of Ameri Chicago. Describing the city in a letter home, she wrote, "it is fun, can democracy. Some of President Roosevelt's White House as you agree, to be able to breathe the freeer air of Chicago" (7). advisors pressured him to indict black editors for sedition. FDR Northern and some western cities offered other amenities that refused to sanction such an action. Instead his administration African Americans found welcoming. Housing in cities such as began to collect information on black morale. A 1942 Office of Chicago and New York was much better than that of the rural War Information report detailed the widespread discontent. One South. Blacks also had access to superior health care and to foods Cincinnati housemaid told investigators that to her it did not higher in nutrition. As a result, during the war, the black mortality matter ifHitler won the war. "It couldn't be any worse for colored rose. it not. so rates dropped considerably and the birthrate Generally people?it may and may It ain't good now," she speaking, the four hundred thousand African Americans who commented (10). The Federal Bureau of Investigation also con moved out ofthe South during the war created significantly better ducted its own investigation. In itsRACON (racial conditions in lives for themselves. America) report, the FBI concluded that although most African To improve their new lives, many African Americans joined Americans supported the war, racism undercut the government's civil rights groups such as the N AACP, the Urban League, and the efforts to build a unified nation in wartime.