University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School July 2019 Bystander Intervention, Victimization, and Routine Activities Theory: An Examination of Feminist Routine Activities Theory in Cyber Space Jennifer A. Leili University of South Florida, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the Criminology and Criminal Justice Commons Scholar Commons Citation Leili, Jennifer A., "Bystander Intervention, Victimization, and Routine Activities Theory: An Examination of Feminist Routine Activities Theory in Cyber Space" (2019). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/7843 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Bystander Intervention, Victimization, and Routine Activities Theory: An Examination of Feminist Routine Activities Theory in Cyber Space by Jennifer A. Leili A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Criminology College of Community and Behavioral Sciences University of South Florida Co-Major Professor: Ráchael Powers, Ph.D. Co-Major Professor: Ojmarrh Mitchell, Ph.D. Richard Moule, Ph.D. Michelle Hughes Miller, Ph.D. Date of Approval: April 22, 2019 Keywords: Violence against women, College students, Dating violence, Sexual violence Copyright © 2019, Jennifer A. Leili DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to all those people who have been told they are not good enough, or not smart enough to accomplish their goals. With hard work you can accomplish your goals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my dissertation committee and all of the Professors at the University of South Florida. Dr. Powers, there are so many things that I can thank you for. First, thank you for introducing me to the world of victimization research. Largely from working on the BarTAB project, I have found that I have a passion for learning about victimization and ways to prevent it. Thank you for the many hours and revisions spent helping me finish this dissertation. I couldn’t have completed this project without you. Dr. Mitchell, thank you for always believing in me, even when I wasn’t sure I could do it myself. No matter what the situation was you always had faith that I would finally get to this point. Rick and Michelle, thank you for your input that has helped guide this project to light. I would also like to thank Dr. Hugh Potter and Dr. Jeff Rosky for their support and guidance throughout the years. I can honestly say if it wasn’t for the both of you I would not have pursued my PhD when I did. Under your direction my experiences at the University of Central Florida prepared me to earn my PhD at USF. There are not enough words to thank all of the doctoral students I have met in my time as a graduate student. I am reminded every year, at each conference I attend, how tight the bond of USF alumni really is. Thank you to all the graduate students who have gone for a walk with me to get lunch or coffee. Those were some of my favorite times. While I wish I could thank every single graduate student who I have met throughout the years, my dissertation is already rather long. There are some people that I feel inclined to call out. Batya, we are so different yet so similar. What started out as a buddy who would get Italian Ices with me, has turned into a lifelong friendship. Your constant support means the world to me. Caitlyn, I am so glad I had someone this last year who was going through the same process. Michelle, thank you for being a great officemate and showing me a taste of Louisiana. Rachel, thank you for always listening to me. Scott, after so many conversations about my dissertation it’s still hard for me to believe that you aren’t here. Thank you for always stopping what you were working on and chatting with me. Last but certainly not least I would like to thank my friends and family for fall of their support. To my grandparents, thank you for giving me the gift of a college education and all of your love and support. Mom and Dad, thank you so much for instilling the value of education and supporting all of us on achieving our goals. Thank you for always reminding me of what’s important in life. To Nick, Meghann, Ria, and Matt, thank you for all of your support and guidance. Matt, thank you for proofreading so many of my projects. To my nieces and nephew, you all teach me so many lessons every day. Your love has brightened my days. To my friends, Amanda, Amie, and Kristen, thank you so much for believing in me and listening to me even though you have no clue what I’m talking about. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables iv Abstract v Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Routine Activities Theory 4 Bystander Intervention 5 The Current Study 7 Chapter Overview 8 Chapter 2: Extent and Nature of Violence against Women 10 Brief History of Violence against Women 12 Cultural Acceptance of Violence against Women 14 Violence against Women on College Campuses 16 Non-Physical Violence against Women 18 Extending Violence against Women to Cyber Space 21 Summary 28 Chapter 3: Routine Activities Theory and Feminists Routine Activities Theory as a Framework for Understanding Violence against Women 29 Routine Activities Theory 30 Feminist Routine Activities Theory 34 Motivated Offenders 35 Target Suitability 36 Capable Guardianship 37 Cyber Routine Activities Theory 40 Motivated Offenders 42 Target Suitability 43 Capable Guardianship 43 Understanding Capable Guardianship and Incorporating Bystander Intervention 45 Characteristics of Bystanders Related to Intervention 49 Summary 51 Chapter 4: Current Study 53 Research Goal 1 55 Research Questions and Hypotheses 55 Research Goal 2 61 Research Questions and Hypotheses 62 Research Goal 3 65 Research Question and Hypotheses 65 i Summary 66 Chapter 5: Methodology 67 Vignettes 67 Vignette Pilot Study Process 68 Final Pilot Study Results 69 Study Procedure 73 Data Cleaning 74 Participants 74 Survey Instruments 75 Dependent Variables for Research Goal 1 76 Type of intervention 76 Likelihood of intervention 77 Independent Variables 78 Characterization of victim 78 Characterization of perpetrator 79 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory 79 Attitudes towards Violence against Women Scale 80 Bystander Efficacy Scale 82 Perceptions of Peers Helping Scale 82 Victimization 83 Social media usage 85 Dependent Variables for Research Goal 2 86 Victimization 86 Independent Variables for Research Goal 2 90 Suitable Targets 90 Proximity to People who Victimize Women 90 Routine Activities/Lifestyles 91 Facebook Intensity Scale 93 Motivated Offenders 94 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory 94 Attitudes towards Violence against Women Scale 94 Capable Guardians 94 Parental Guardianship 94 Peer Guardianship 95 Personal Guardianship 96 Dependent Variable for Research Goal 3 97 Independent Variables for Research Goal 3 97 Capable Guardianship 97 Peer Guardianship 97 Personal Guardianship 97 Analytic Plan 98 Summary 100 Chapter 6: Results 101 Correlates of Bystander Intervention 101 ii Research Question 1: How do bystanders intervene in cyber victimization? 102 Research Question 2: What factors are related to cyber bystander intervention? 103 Summary 108 Research Questions 3 and 4: 3) Does the feminist and cyber framework enhance the ability of RAT to explain rates of victimization for college students? 4) Does bystander intervention skills impact victimization? 111 Suitable Targets 112 Any Victimization 112 In-Person Victimization 114 Cyber Victimization 116 Motivated Offenders 117 Any Victimization 117 In-Person Victimization 117 Cyber Victimization 118 Capable Guardianship 118 Any Victimization 118 In-Person Victimization 120 Cyber Victimization 120 Summary 121 Chapter 7: Discussion 147 Key Findings from Research Goal 1 147 Key Findings from Research Goal 2 156 Key Findings from Research Goal 3 164 Policy Implications 165 Limitations 167 Conclusion 170 References 172 Appendix 1: Survey 185 Appendix 2: Variables Used Table 237 Appendix 3: Proximity Variables Missing Data 243 Appendix 4: Sensitivity Analysis 244 Appendix 5: Preliminary and Intermediate Models 250 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Key Elements of Routine Activities Theory and its Application 52 Table 2: Participants (N=575) 75 Table 3: Types of Intervention by Scenario 77 Table 4: Intervention Intentions by Scenario 78 Table 5: Characterization of Victim by Scenario 79 Table 6: Characterization of Perpetrator by Scenario 79 Table 7: Ambivalent Sexism Inventory by Scenario 80 Table 8: Attitudes towards Violence against Women Scale by Scenario 81 Table 9: Perceptions of Peers Helping by Scenario 83 Table 10: Percentage of Victimization by Scenario 85 Table 11: Social Media Usage by Scenario 86 Table 12: Victimization Overlap 87 Table 13: Dating Violence Victimization 87 Table 14: Sexual Violence Victimization 88 Table 15: Stalking Victimization 89 Table 16: Friends and Acquaintances who Victimize Women 91 Table 17: Routine Activities 92 Table 18: Social Media Scales 953 Table 19: Frequency of Intervention and Non-Intervention by Scenario 126 Table 20: Multinomial Regression of Vignette Characteristics on Bystander Intervention 127 iv Table 21: Multinomial Regression of Attitudes towards Violence on Bystander Intervention 129 Table 22: