Meteorological Satelliteg. William W. Vaughan* The Very Early Years, Prior to Launch of TIROS-1 Abstract was conducted with the intent to identify the scientific issues of 1950 still outstanding (Vaughan 1986). There The meteorological satellite program began in the United States were a large number of issues still unresolved in 1985, as the result of the actions taken by a very small but dedicated group after 35 years of rather extensive meteorological of people from the late 1940s to 1960. This paper provides firsthand research. However, a significant observation was that accounts by two of these dedicated individuals. Their remarks provide an insight into the trials and tribulations they and the program the subject of using satellites to support research encountered during these very early years. Those now active in the associated with problems in meteorology was not program, many of whom do not recall this time, might appreciate the addressed in any of the articles published in the effort of these pioneers and the legacy they left for us. Compendium of Meteorology. Some pictures of clouds taken from vertical sound- ing rockets were published as early as 1949, and the 1. Introduction feasibility of weather observation from a satellite was discussed by S. M. Greenfield and W. W. Kellogg in While their projectile was advancing toward the a 1951 classified report by the RAND Corporation on moon in 1860, Jules Verne's intrepid "lunarnauts" meteorological satellites prepared for the U.S. Sen- looked back and "saw" cloud systems against the ate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences Earth's background. "Some parts brilliantly lighted (Greenfield and Kellogg 1960a). However, the first showed the presence of high mountains, often disap- known depiction of what large-scale weather patterns pearing behind thick spots, which were never seen on might be expected to look like from high altitudes was the lunar disc. They were rings of clouds placed that of Harry Wexler. It was presented as part of a concentrically round the terrestrial globe." About a paper, "Observing the Weather from a Satellite Ve- hundred years were to elapse before the real succes- hicle," given at the Third Symposium on Space Travel, sors to Verne's travelers actually saw the majestic held at the American Museum, Hayden Planetarium, cloudscape against the terrestrial globe (Fritz 1964). New York, on 4 May 1954 (Widger 1961). Wexler In 1951 the American Meteorological Society pub- described what he envisioned as a meteorological lished the Compendium of Meteorology (Malone 1951). satellite's or satellite weather station's primary pur- The purpose of this extensive and outstanding book pose and properties (Wexler 1954). His remarks was to assess the status of meteorology in the late follow. 1940s and indicate areas of future research needed to extend the frontiers of our knowledge. Many of us who A satellite vehicle traveling about the Earth undertook our formal training in meteorology during outside the atmosphere would not assist in the 1950s became rather well acquainted with this portraying the pressure, temperature, humidity, seven-pound (it seemed like more) book and found it and wind fields by direct measurement. How- to be an invaluable source of information on our ever, by a "bird's-eye" view of a good portion of current knowledge of the atmosphere. In 1985 an the Earth's surface and the cloud structure, it should be possible by inference to identify, extensive review of the Compendium of Meteorology locate, and track storm areas and other meteo- rological features. The vehicle would then serve 'University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama. principally as a "storm patrol." There exists + NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. under normal conditions a characteristic cloud Corresponding author address: Dr. William W. Vaughan, Atmospheric condition for a "typical" extra-tropical storm. Science Program, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. In order to reconnoiter the weather most In final form 31 May 1994. effectively, the satellite weather station should ©1994 American Meteorological Society have the following properties: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 2269 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/09/21 07:41 AM UTC (a) It should be located far enough away to at several inland stations. Thus, the ability of high- have an instantaneous field of view com- altitude photography to detect unknown storms was parable to North America and adjacent demonstrated. By mid-1958 work had begun in the ocean areas—similar to the area covered Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Depart- by the forecaster's "working" chart. ment of Defense on a meteorological satellite that was (b) It should not be so high that cloud areas to become TIROS. On 13 April 1959, cognizance of and geographical features are not readily identifiable. this program was transferred to the National Aeronau- (c) It should move in such a manner as to tics and Space Administration (NASA 1966). have the same cloud system in the field of The first TIROS meteorological satellite was flown1 view at least twice in a 12-hour period to on 1 April 1960. It demonstrated that cloud-cover obtain a track of the storm associated with information provided by a satellite is useful in describ- the cloud system. ing the location of weather systems and inferring (d) It should not move so fast that individual atmospheric motions. It established the value of the cloud systems cannot be located accu- spacecraft and supporting ground equipment devel- rately with respect to known ground fea- oped around Vidicon cameras. The successful opera- tures. tion of TIROS-1 gave hints of the potential for identi- (e) It should cover the entire Earth in daylight fication and tracking of fronts and storms from day to or at least once daily. (f) It should have a westward component of day and eventually the continuous quantitative global motion relative to the Earth's surface so as observation of the atmosphere. While the accomplish- to detect quickly new storms which usually ments have exceeded those envisioned by Wexler move from west to east. and others in the early days, without their foresight and persistence use of the meteorological satellite would Such a vehicle is one which is located at 2.01 not have reached the dimension it has today. Earth's radii from the Earth's centre or about During January 1982, sessions were organized at 4,000 miles from the Earth's surface and which two national conferences regarding the development, has a period of rotation about the Earth of growth, and future of meteorological satellites (Vaughan exactly 4 hours. 1982a,b). The objective was to capture the firsthand observations and comments from some of those who played major roles in the engineering, scientific, and 2. The beginning programmatic activities associated with the early years of meteorological satellites. Accordingly, this paper In the late 1940s and early 1950s, rockets were reflects on and contains the remarks made by some of used for experimental investigations of the atmo- these pioneers, which we believe the readers will find sphere. In 1947, a V-2 rocket launched at White of interest. Sands, New Mexico, took the first successful photo- graphs of the earth's cloud cover, from an altitude of 110 to 165 km. From 1947 to 1950, additional V-2 and 3. William W. Kellogg's remarks Viking rockets carried high-altitude cloud photography experiments, which led to the first serious proposal for In giving appropriate and deserved attention to meteorological satellites. The MOUSE (Minimum Or- some of our earlier pioneers, we could do no better bital Unmanned Satellite of the Earth) concept was an than William W. Kellogg in his contribution published outgrowth of the high-altitude research program started by NASA in the proceedings of the session on meteo- in 1946 using captured V-2 rockets. The initial MOUSE rological satellites organized forthe Annual Meeting of design used a spin-stabilized, basketball-sized satel- the American Meteorological Society in January 1982 lite carrying miniaturized instrumentation. The Televi- (Vaughan 1982a). We believe the readers will find sion and Infrared Observing Satellite (TIROS) incor- Kellogg's presentation most interesting, and therefore, porated many of the MOUSE features (Singer 1992). in order not to lose any of his very informative remarks, In 1954, a U.S. Navy Aerobee rocket took pictures we have decided to include them as part of the paper. over the southwestern United States that emphasized the utility of a meteorological satellite. These pictures showed a storm that had passed onto land from the 1 Launched by NASA into near-circular orbit on a Thor-Able rocket at Gulf of Mexico. The complexity of this storm had 50° inclination, with an orbital altitude of about 450 miles. The cylinder, which weighed 263 lb and measured approximately 22 remained completely undetected by conventional inches in height by 42 inches in diameter, transmitted 23 000 cloud- means. The presence of the multicirculation patterns cover pictures from a standard Vidicon television camera before explained previously inexplicable rains that occurred ceasing operation on 30 June 1960. Built by RCA Astro-Electronics. 2270 Vol. 75, No. 12, December 1994 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/09/21 07:41 AM UTC After a youth filled with enthusiasm for Buck see in the subsequent discussions during this Rogers and a fascination with the possibility of session whether Bjerknes' feeling was borne spaceflight, it was a thrill for me to represent the out or not. U.S. Air Force on the Upper Atmosphere V-2 There were many other activities in those Research Panel in 1945. The first V-2's fired days—projects that eventually led to the me- from White Sands carried concrete in the nose teorological satellite.