Architecture and Identity: The Occupation, Use, and Reuse of Mughal Caravanserais by Jennifer Lynn Campbell A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology University of Toronto © Copyright by Jennifer Lynn Campbell 2011 Architecture and Identity: The Occupation, Use, and Reuse of Mughal Caravanserais Jennifer Lynn Campbell Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology University of Toronto 2011 Abstract Life, individual and collective, exists in reference to what came before; my research into the life histories of places explores the cultural threads which tie us to places and which allow us to make personal and collective connections between the past and the present. Understanding these life histories helps us understand the value and power historic places have in the world today. This thesis focuses on Mughal caravanserais from northwestern Pakistan, examining how they were initially intended to be used during the Mughal rule of South Asia and how they were reused in the periods that followed (Sikh, Afghani, British, and Pakistani). Caravanserais are walled arcaded buildings where travelers could stop briefly. After the Mughal Empire declined, caravanserais were reused by local people and/or taken over by subsequent governing bodies. Surviving structures are still used today, although their original appearance and functions have been altered to serve new purposes. My research is part of the Caravanserai Networks Project, directed by Dr. Heather Miller, University of Toronto. I develop my survey method through comparative study of two caravanserais, Gor Khuttree and Pakka Khanpur. Using information from architectural survey, historic documents, and photographs, I create three-dimensional architectural models of Gor Khuttree’s occupations. I use access and planning analysis to characterize the use and alteration of the sites’ architecture. Conceptually, I develop a tripartite formation of place: formed, in practice, and in memory. As a multifaceted place, I consider Gor Khuttree’s life history; the occupations, identities, and memories associated with the site through time. ii The City of Peshawar, central to this research, was at the time of writing in Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province. This province was renamed Khyber Pakhtunkhwa on April 15th, 2010. This research continues to refer to the province by its former name. This ensures continuity with published documents and the organizational names used by colleagues in Pakistan at the time of research. iii Acknowledgments Working in Pakistan has been the most rewarding thing I have done to date. The generous people, the beautiful country, and the rich history drew me in. My time in Pakistan was made possible by the support of Prof. Dr. Ihsan Ali. Dr. Ali ensured I had access to the sites necessary for my research. He is an inspiration to all those working in the NWFP, and is able to organize and accomplish projects beyond the size and scope of most people’s imaginings. His wonderful wife and their children were generous and welcoming, and I thank them all for this. Each research trip to Pakistan was begun with a happy visit to the AIPS office in Islamabad who arranged for transportation and accommodation. My research in Peshawar was facilitated by a number of friends and colleagues. From Peshawar University I would like to acknowledge and thank Prof. Dr. F. Swati, Prof. Dr. Taj Ali, Mr. Muhammad Naeem Qazi, Mr. Naeem Badshah, and Mr. Asad. During survey seasons at Gor Khuttree I was assisted by a number of people and I thank them all for their help and their friendship: Mr. Ihsanullah Khan, the curator at Gor Khuttree, Mr. Mohammad Zahir, Mr. Mehir Rahman Khalil, Mr. Abid Ur Rehman, Mr. Muhammad Ashfaq Ahmed, Ms. Afshan Barkat, Ms. Neelofar Ghani and many others whom I know only by first name or nick-name: especially Asad, Margit, and Naeem. Special thanks to the Federal Department of Archaeology and Muhammad Bahadar Khan for his assistance with recording Gor Khuttree; Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Khan for encouraging the project to visit and record Pakka Khanpur Serai; and the Provincial Directorate of Archaeology and Museums NWFP and Mr. Saleh Muhammad Khan for supporting our research and providing access to the facilities at Gor Khuttree. I am forever grateful to all those people whose names I do not know; the countless people who shared their tea, showed interest in my work, and encouraged me to enjoy their country. I dedicate this work to you. Many thanks to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Department of Anthropology and the School of Graduate Studies at the University of Toronto, the General Motors Foundation, and the Bekerman Family for the generous funding I received throughout my dissertation. My research would not have been possibly without the guidance and support of Dr. Heather Miller. Heather is always generous with her knowledge, time, resources, support, and editorial comments. I have benefited immeasurably from all of these. I thank her for her patience and her belief in me. She opened the world of South Asia to me; I can not express enough gratitude for this. In addition I would like to thank the members of my committee. Dr. Ted Banning and Dr. Gary Coupland offered insightful comments throughout and labored tirelessly with my commas and colons: thank-you. Dr. Edward Swenson offered insightful and thought provoking comments, reminding me that interpretation is a luxury and a subjective one at that. Finally, I thank Dr. Carla Sinopoli for serving as my external reviewer. I was honored to receive your comments on my dissertation and your generous suggestions for future publications. I aspire in my career to follow the examples set by this collection of researchers and mentors. Last but not least, I thank family and friends. Stephen, Stacey, Gail, Susan, Crystal, Terry, Matthew, Emma, Emily, Jill, Andrew, Trevor, Greg, Lesley, Graydon, Anna, Lauren, Joan, KP, Carla, Jaime, Leah, David, Kathy, Mum, Dad, and so many more; you listened, you debated, you consoled, and you celebrated with me. I could not have done this without you. iv Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables.............................................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. x Glossary ................................................................................................................................................. xviii Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Approaches ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Results ................................................................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Overview ............................................................................................................................................ 7 Chapter 2 Social Theory and Architecture ................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Social Theory ..................................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.1 Structure and Function ................................................................................................................ 9 2.1.2 Memory and Identity ................................................................................................................. 12 2.1.3 Collective Identities and Post-Colonial Nationalism ................................................................ 18 2.2 Engagements in the Landscape ........................................................................................................ 23 2.2.1 Places Formed ........................................................................................................................... 24 2.2.2 Places in Practice ....................................................................................................................... 24 2.2.3 Places in Memory ...................................................................................................................... 25 2.2.4 Kostof ........................................................................................................................................ 27 2.2.4.1 The Oneness of Architecture .............................................................................................. 28 2.2.4.2 The Setting of Architecture ................................................................................................ 30 2.2.4.3 The Community of Architecture ........................................................................................ 33 2.2.4.4 The Meaning of Architecture ............................................................................................