URBANIZATION AND ITS IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT IN PUDUKKOTTAI, TAMILNADU, INDIA. Thesis submitted to Bharathidasan University for the award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES By J.MULLAI MANI MOZHI, M.Sc., P.G.D.J.PR P.G & Research Department of Environmental Sciences Bishop Heber College (Autonomous) Nationally Accredited with A+ by NAAC Tiruchirapalli – 620 017. Tamil Nadu, India. MAY 2010. CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled, Urbanization and its Impact on Environment in Pudukkottai,Tamilnadu,India, submitted to the Bharathidasan University for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Sciences, is a record of the original research work done by Ms. J.Mullai mani mozhi, during the period of her study in the Department of Environmental Sciences, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirapalli – 620 017 under my supervision and guidance, and the thesis has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, fellowship, associateship or any other similar title to any candidate of the university. Guide/Supervisor J.Mullai Mani Mozhi, M.Sc., Research Scholar, Department of Environmental Sciences, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirapalli – 620 017. Tamil Nadu, India. Date : …………… Declaration I hereby declare that this work has been originally carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr. C.Ravichandran, Associate Professor , Department of Environmental Sciences, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirapalli – 620 017, Tamil Nadu and that this work has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree, diploma, associate ship, etc., for any other university. J.Mullai Mani Mozhi. S. No. Contents Page No. 1. Introduction 01 2. Review of Literature 38 3. Materials and Methods 91 4. Results and Discussion 111 5. Tables and Figures 141 6. References 7. Appendix 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1. DEFINITION-ENVIRONMENT 1.2 .URBANIZATION 1.2.1 URBAN ECOSYSTEM 1.2.2. URBANIZATION IN WORLD 1.2.3 .URBANIZATION IN BIG CITIES 1.3 .URBANIZATION IN INDIA 1.3.1 .URBANIZATION IN INDIA AND METROPOLITAN CITIES 1.3.2. IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN THE METROPOLITAN CITIES OF INDIA 1.3.3. LIVING CONDITION IN THE METROPOLITAN CITIES IN INDIA 1.4 .URBANIZATION IN TAMIL NADU 1.4.1. SLUM POPULATION: A PROFILE 1.4.2.DECADAL GROWTH 1.4.3. DENSITY 1.5 .PUDUKKOTTAI TOWN –THE STUDY AREA: 1.5.1. HISTORY OF PUDUKOTTAI 1.5.1.1. EARLY HISTORY 1.5.1.2 .MEDIEVAL HISTORY 1.5.1.3 .MODERN HISTORY 1.5.2 . MYTHOLOGICAL STORY OF ORIGIN 1.5.3 .PUDUKKOTTAI TOWN PAST AND PRESENT 1.6 .GEOGRAPHY OF PUDUKKOTTAI DISTRICT 1.6.1. LOCATION AND AREA 1.6.1.1. TERRAIN 1.6.1.2 .HILLS 1.6.1.3 .PLAINS 1.6.1.4 .TANKS 1.6.1.5 .RIVERS 1.6.1.6 .SEACOAST 1.6.1.7 .CLIMATE 1.7 .TRANSPORTATION 1.8 .INDUSTRIES 1.8.1. IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES 1.9 .TOURISM 1.10. EDUCATION 1.10.1. UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGES 1.11.POPULATION TRENDS 1.11.1. TREND IN BIRTH/DEATH RATE AND INFANT MORTALITY RATE 1.12 .RESOURCE 1.12.1. LAND RESOURCE 1.12.1.1. SOILS 1.12.1.2 . CROPS CULTIVATED 1.12.2 .TRENDS IN PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY 1.12.3 .HORTICULTURE 1.12.3.1. VEGETABLES 1.12.3.2. PLANTATION CROPS-CASHEW: 1.12.4 .FOREST RESOURCES 1.12.4.1. FLORA 1.12.4.2 .FAUNA 1.12.4.3 .MAN MADE FOREST 1.12.4.4 .RARE AND THREATENED SPECIES 1.12.5 .SURFACE WATER 1.12.6 .HERITAGE RESOURCES 1.13 .TOURIST ARRIVALS 1.14 .GROWTH OF VEHICLE POPULATION 1.15 .DENSITY OF POPULATION 1.15.1. URBAN SLUM POPULATION 1.16 .URBAN SERVICES 1.16.1. WATER SUPPLY 1.16.2 .MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION 1.17 .POVERTY LINE 1.18 .INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS 1.18.1. SIPCOT COMPLEX 1.19 .ACQA CULTURE ACTIVITIES 1.20 .ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS AIM AND OBJECTIVES 2.0 Review of Literature 2.1. Impact of Urbanization 2.2 .AIR POLLUTION 2.3. NOISE POLLUTION 2.4. WATER POLLUTION 2.4.1. Groundwater and its contamination 2.4.2. Pesticides 2.4.3. Sewage 2.4.4. Nutrients 2.4.5. SYNTHETIC ORGANICS 2.4.6. The effects of Water pollution 2.4.7. Plankton 2.5. SOIL POLLUTION 2.5.1. Evolutionary nature of soil 2.5.1.1. SOIL PROFILE 2.5.1.2. Horizons of soil 2.5.1.3. Components of soil 2.5.2. Soil nutrients 2.5.2.1. Macronutrients 2.5.2.2. Micronutrients 2.5.3. Life in the soil 2.5.4. Soil deterioration 2.5.5. Soil Degradation 2.5.6. Soil erosion 2.5.7. Salinity and alkalinity 2.5.8. Mining and Environmental degradation 2.5.9. Water logging and marshy land 2.5.10. Agriculture progress, problems and constraints 2.5.10.1. Depletion of water resources 2.5.10.2. Decline in soil organic matter 2.5.11. Soil treatment 2.5.12. Agriculture and Horticulture Waste Land 2.6. WASTE WATER TREATMENT 2.6.1. Aquatic Macrophyte 2.6.2. WASTE WATER USAGE 2.7. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 2.7.1. GENERATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES 2.7.2. WASTE COMPOSITION 2.7.3. Trace Elements and MSW Compost 2.7.4. Effects on Water Quality 2.7.5. Effects on Soil Organisms 2.7.6. Long-term Concerns 2.7.7. Potential Benefits of Trace Elements in MSW Compost 2.7.8. Related Regulatory Issues 2.8. SOCIO-CULTURAL DETERMINANTS OF URBAN OCCUPATION 2.8.1. BELTS OF VEGETATION OF IRREGULAR SHAPE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. General Profile of Pudukkottai 3.1.1. CURRENT STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN PUDUKKOTTAI 3.1.1.1.TOPOGRAPHY 3.1.1.2.CLIMATE 3.2 .AIR SAMPLING and ANALYSIS 3.3 .NOISE ASSESSMENT 3.3.1. Selected zones 3.3.1.1.Residential zone 3.3.1.2 .Commercial zone 3.3.1.3 .Silence zone 3.3.1.4 .Industrial zone 3.4 .WATER SAMPLING and ANALYSIS 3.5 .SOIL SAMPLING , ANALYSIS and TREATMENT 3.5.1. Selection and Location of the study area 3.5.1.1. Terrain Evaluation 3.5.1.2 .Soil profile 3.5.1.3 .Soil Fertility Studies 3.5.2 .COLLECTION OF SAMPLE 3.5.3 .Soil Treatment 3.5.3.1. Cultivation of Palmarosa 3.5.3.2 .Cultivation study 3.5.4 .Plant description 3.5.4.1.Botanical Classification 3.5.4.2 .Description of the herb palmarosa 3.5.4.3 .Properties 3.5.4.4 .Therapeutic uses 3.6 .MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER ANALYSIS ANS TREATMENT 3.6.1. Floating Aquatic Plants 3.6.1.1 .Growth Characteristics 3.6.2 .BUFFALO GRASS: KANSAS WILDFLOWERS AND GRASSES 3.7 .SOLID WASTE ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 3.7.1 .Composting 3.7.2.Process description of Composting 3.7.3 .Nutrient contents of Sugar industry effluent 3.7.4.Preparation of Bio-compost 3.7.5 .SITE SELECTION FOR COMPOSTING PLANT 3.7.5.1. WINDROW METHOD 3.8 .BIODIVERSITY 3.8.1 .Flora 3.8.1.1. Sample survey 3.8.2 .Fauna assessment 3.8.2.1. Insects 3.8.2.2 .Birds 3.8.2.3 .Vertebrate species 3.8.2.3.1. POINT SURVEY METHOD 3.8.2.3.2 .ROADSIDE COUNTS 3.8.2.3.3 .Pellet and track counts 3.8.2.4 .Reptiles 3.8.2.5.AQUATIC BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 3.8.2.5.1. Planktons 3.9. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY 3.9.1. Questionnaire 4.0.Results and Discussion 4.1. Population Distribution 4.2. Air Quality Status in Pudukkottai 4.2.1. Suspended Particulate Matter 4.2.2. Sulphur di Oxide 4.2.3. Nitrogen Oxides 4.3. Noise Assessment in Pudukkottai 4.4. Water Quality in Pudukkottai 4.4.1. Ground Water Status 4.4.2. Surface Water Analysis 4.5. Soil Analysis 4.6. Waste Water Characteristics and its Treatment 4.7. Solid Waste 4.7.1. Characteristics of Solid Wastes 4.7.2. Solid Waste Management and Soil Quality Improvement 4.7.3. Nutrient components in bio compost 4.7.4. Soil treatment with Bio-Compost 4.8. Biodiversity 4.9. Socio Economic Status ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I have great pleasure in writing this page in my dissertation to express my happiness which I feel to acknowledge all those who helped me to complete this work successfully. It gives me great pleasure expressing my deep sense of indebtedness and gratitude to my Research Guide Dr. C. Ravichandran, Associate Professor, P.G. and Research Department of Environmental Sciences, Bishop Heber College, for all the encouragement and valuable guidance received by me at every stage of the work. The useful discussions I had with him, both inside and outside the College, were always a source of inspiration to me. I owe my sincere thanks to Prof. D. Swamiraj, former Director, Bishop Heber College, for having given me this opportunity to do my Ph.D through this institution. I sincerely thank Prof. Dr. Marcus Diepen Boominathan, Principal Bishop Heber College, for having given me this wonderful opportunity to do my Ph.D work, in Bishop Heber College. I also record my gratitude to Dr.Susila Appadurai, Vice Principal ,Bishop Heber College, for his valuable suggestions and encouragement. My Special heartfelt thanks to Dr. (Mrs) Kalavathy , Associate Professor, Department of Botany, Bishop Heber College for her encouragement throughout the course of this work. My thanks are due to the Doctoral Committee member Dr.George John, Associate Professor , Department of Zoology, E.V.R.College, Trichy for his help during the period of my research work I extent my sincere gratitude to Prof.