PROVINCIALISM AND THE CRISIS OF INDIGENOUS FIJIAN POLITICAL UNITY Alumita Lawaniyavi Durutalo A Thesis submitted to the School of Social and Economic Development at The University of the South Pacific in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (M.A.) in Development Studies. The University of the South Pacific School of Social and Economic Development Suva, Fiji April, 1997 DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY I hereby declare that this, thesis does not include without acknowledgment any material previously written, published or submitted for a degree or diploma in any university by other persons. Alumita L. Durutalo April 1997 I hereby certify that this thesis was based on original research undertaken by Ms Alumita L. Durutalo. Professor Nii-K Plange 24 April 1997 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi ABSTRACT ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Contextualising The Problem 1 1.2 The Problem 9 1.3 Significance Of The Problem 12 1.4 Thesis Outline 13 1.5 Definitions Of Terms And Key Concepts 18 NOTES 23 CHAPTER 2 THE PROBLEM AND ITS HISTORICAL CONTEXT 24 2.1 A General Introduction To Fijian Politics 24 2.2 An Introduction To The Literature Review 24 2.3 Literature Review , 25 2.4 The Search For A Theoretical Framework 48 2.5 The Politics of Clientelism Within Fijian Society 52 2.6 Methodology 57 NOTES 60 CHAPTER 3 THE COLONIAL STATE AND INDIRECT RULE IN FIJI 61 3.1 The Creation Of The Modern State System In Traditional Societies 61 3.2 A Theoretical Discussion Of The Theories Of The State 61 3.3 Theory Of The State In Third World Traditional Societies 63 3.4 The Colonial State And The System Of Indirect Rule in Fiji , 65 3.5 The System Of Indirect Rule: State Strategies Towards Socio-Political Unity 66 3.6 Demarcation Of Provincial Boundries 68 3.7 The System Of Native Administration 71 3.8 The Armed Native Constabulary: The Disciplinarian Arm Of The Fijian State 75 3.9 Conclusion , 77 NOTES 80 CHAPTER 4 PROVINCIALISM AND THE POLITICS OF INDIRECT RULE 81 4.1 The Structure Of The Provincial System And Justification For Its Existence 81 4.2 The Province As A Foremost Institute Of Socio-Political Reorganisation And Pacification 85 4.3 Manifest Functions Of The Provincial Government And Changes Over The Years (1875-1970) 89 4.4 Conclusion 108 NOTES 109 CHAPTER 5 PROVINCIALISM IN FIJI: LATENT FUNCTIONS AND CONSEQUENCES 110 5.1 Internal Dynamics Of Provincialism 110 5.2 Provincial Bureaucracy: A State Within A State 121 5.3 Provincialism And The Evolution Of Neo-Patrimonial Political Relations 126 5.4 The 1990 Constitution: A Re-Affirmation Of Patron-Client Politics , 131 5.5 From Indirect Rule to Direct Rule: Strengthening The State Through The 1990 Constitution 134 5.6 The SVT And The Question Of Indigenous Fijian Political Unity 144 NOTES 146 CHAPTER 6 THE POLITICS OF PROVINCIALISM 147 6.1 Colonial And Post-Colonial Policies And The Maintenance Of The Unequal Distribution Of Resources 147 6.2 The Dilemmas Of Indigenous Fijian Political Unity 156 6.3 A Summary Of The Indepth Interviews 189 NOTES 195 . CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 196 7.1 A Brief Summary Of The Thesis Intent 196 7.2 Issues Leading To Political Unity: Changes And How Changes Relate To Contemporary Situations , 202 7.3 Provincialism and Its Benefits 207 7.4 Coups And Post-Coup Dilemmas Of Fijian Political Unity 209 7.5 Internal Contradictions Within Fijian Polity 210 7.6 Search For A Political System To Suit Present Crisis 212 APPENDIX 215 (SAMPLES OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS) BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 iii LIST OF TABLES PAGE NO Table 1: Alliance Parliamentary Majorities 13 Table 2: Return of Provincial Chiefs Hereafter To Be Styled Rokos Under the Provincial Government of 10th October, 1874 84 Table 3: Provinces of Origins of Roko Tui 92 Table 4; Distribution of Land Rental Income 116 Table 5: Number of Members in Provincial Constituencies 136 Table 6: Fijian Population By Province (Settlement & Villages) 148 Table 7: Provincial Budget Allocated By The Ministry Of Fijian Affairs (1984-1993) 150 Table 8: Award Of Overseas Scholarships By The Fijian Affairs Board (1984-1994) 152 Table 9; Provincial Allocation Of Local Scholarships By The FAB (19844994) 154 IV LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO Figure 1: Model of Communal Patronage Since 1875 8 Figure 2: Fijian Social Structure As Drawn By Maxwell in 1913 32 Figure 3: Post-Coup Patron-Client Political System 55 Figure 4: 1875 Provincial Boundaries 69 Figure 5: Hierarchy of Offices Within the Provincial Administration Since 1875 ...82 Figure 6: Social Status of Bulis 1900-1940 94 Figure 7: Gordon's Produce Tax System of 1875 99 Figure 8; The Hierarchy of Leadership Through the 1945 Fijian Affairs Ordinance 105 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my gratitude to a number of people who contributed professionally and personally to enable the completion of this study. First of all, I would like to acknowledge the professional help of my Chief Supervisor, Professor in Sociology, Dr. Nii K-Plange, who was always there to render me advice and guidance regarding thesis writing. His academic wisdom and vast knowledge in Third World studies were a source of inspiration during the course of my thesis research and writing. I am also indebted to my second Supervisor, Professor in Development Studies, Dr. Croz Walsh for his contribution towards the achievement of my Post-Graduate Diploma in Development Studies and for facilitating the Master of Arts fieldwork. The Professor in Education, Dr. Tupeni Baba, was always ready to discuss Fijian politics with me and offered academic advice during the course of thesis writing, and for this I express my sincere gratitude, I would also like to acknowledge the financial contribution of the Sasakawa Foundation for the award of the Sasakawa Young Leaders Scholarship (1995 -1996), which enabled me to undertake graduate studies in Development at the University of the South Pacific. I am also indebted to the Permanent Secretary for Fijian Affairs, Ratu Jone Radrodro, for allowing me to attend provincial Council and tikina Council meetings and also to interview some of his staff members in 1995. The Principal Archivist, Ms. Margaret Patel and staff members of the National Archives of Fiji in Suva, provided me with "first class service" during the course of my research at the National Archives. Without their help this study would not have been completed. I would also like to thank the following people who were most considerate in giving their personal time to facilitate and enable my interviews:- the Roko Tui Ba, Ratu Tevita Momoedonu; the Tui Vitogo, Ratu Sovasova; Ratu Nemia Vuniraakadre Vainitoba of Nakavu Nadi; Kaminieli and Teka of Namoli Lautoka; the Roko Tui Nadroga, Ratu Inoke Kadralevu; the Tui Vusu, Ratu Tevita Kuridrani and interviewees of Namatakula village in Nadroga, Ratu Jobe, Pio Wong and all the interviewees of Votua Lailai and Biausevu villages in Nadroga; Mika and Ratu Inosi of Lautoka; the Taukei Nalotu and all interviewees of Solevu village in Malolo; Ratu Rara and family and all interviewees of Yaro village in Malolo; Siteri and Ratu Manoa of Malolo District School; Ratu Meli Verebalavu, Epeli Ratabaca, Ravaele, Seva, Bai, Adrea, and all interviewees in Tailevu; Professor Tupeni Baba and other interviewees in Suva. I am also indebted to my research assistants, Staff Nurse Litiana Kuridrani, for facilitating the research in Western Viti Levu and for her help in recording the interviews; and Lanieta Mawi for presenting the "Sevusevu" following traditional Fijian protocol. My research assistants' vast understanding of Fijian customs and traditions and "yaqona" drinking capacities greatly facilitated the lengthy interviews, I also acknowledge the help of my sister, 'Di Kau in allowing me (and my friends), the free use of her office and all its resources during the course of thesis writing. My Samoan sister Julie Boon, was always willing to share her indepth computing knowledge and for this I am most thankful. The members of my extended family had been a constant source of help and strength to my children and I throughout the 2 year duration of my graduate studies. I am deeply indebted to my parents, Ratu Meli Verebalavu and Senidamanu; my sister, Adi Canavanua and brother-in-law; brothers; sisters-in-law; sisters; and relatives; for the love and care shown to my children during my long absences from home in the course of thesis research and writing. My children's aunt Ana deserves special mention for her task in looking after the homefront and caring for the children. My University friends, Una Nabobo, Aliti, Yoko, Julie, Lata, Janice, Asinate, and Fred have shown their support all along. I am deeply indebted to Ms. Yoko Kanemasu of the Embassy of Japan in Suva, and Dr. Michael Monsell-Davis who helped in proofreading the thesis. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the perseverance of my children, Vika, Senidamanu, Andrew and Mary, for the long hours I spent away from home in order to complete this study. I dedicate this thesis to you and all the children in the extended family. This thesis was written prior to Constitutional Review in 1996, and some of the Constitutional issues discussed in this thesis have been addressed, or at least attempted to be addressed, especially the move towards multiracialism in post-coup Fiji. The thesis must be read in the light of changes which have been introduced by the Constitutional Review. Any errors or weaknesses of argument are entirely my own responsibility and should be viewed as a basis for future study. VINAKA VAKALEVU Vii ABSTRACT The ongoing study is an attempt to focus on Provincialism And The Crisis Of Indigenous Fijian Political Unity through an analysis of the strategies which were used to create and maintain the colonial state and colonial society in Fiji since Fiji's cession to Britain in 1875.