Stjórnmálafræðideild MA-ritgerð í alþjóðasamskiptum Combating Human Trafficking and Prostitution State Mechanism and Civil Society In a Nordic Context Katrín Hauksdóttir Júní 2010 Stjórnmálafræðideild MA-ritgerð í alþjóðasamskiptum Combating Human Trafficking and Prostitution State Mechanism and Civil Society In a Nordic Context Katrín Hauksdóttir Júní 2010 Advisor: Þorgerður Einarsdóttir Student: Katrín Hauksdóttir 160573-5899 3 Abstract The topic of this thesis is human trafficking and prostitution and the Nordic countries in their efforts of combating the situation. The hypothesis is that the Nordic countries are role models when it comes to combating human trafficking and prostitution, considering they focus on gender inequality. Two research questions are posed. The first one is whether feminist influence is effective when it comes to policy frameworks. The assumption is that feminist influence is effective, specifically when looking at the Nordic countries, as they are gender egalitarian nations that have the advantage of having strong feminist lobbies within society. The second question is whether the Nordic countries and their NGOs act as norm entrepreneurs in combating human trafficking and prostitution. The assumption is that the Nordic countries are norm entrepreneurs as they have influenced each other and other nations to conform to their norms and values. The same goes with NGOs within society as some of the Nordic countries have NGOs that are strong in feminist values and lobbyism. The special focus is thus on the Nordic countries, as each will be discussed and compared in their efforts in combating human trafficking and sexual exploitation. 4 Preface This thesis is the final assignment for a Masters of Arts degree in International Relations at the University of Iceland and is the equivalent of 30 credits. My advisor was Professor Þorgerður Einarsdóttir. Her guidance has been very motivational, encouraging and inspirational and I remain grateful for her assistance and support. Moreover, I remain grateful for her endless amount of patience, kindness and guidance. This thesis relied largely on resources through the Internet, magazines and books, however I would like to thank my only interviewee, an NGO official whose name will not be disclosed. I remain grateful for being granted the interview. Sérstakar þakkir fá vinkonur mínar fyrir að hvetja mig áfram og gefa mér rauða spjaldið þegar helst reyndi á. Þakkir fá vinkonur mínar úr skólanum fyrir hvatninguna og stuðninginn og vil ég líka þakka þeim fyrir samfylgdina í gegnum námið. En helst ber ég að þakka foreldrum mínum sem hafa alltaf hvatt mig áfram og er þessi ritgerð sérstaklega tileinkuð móður minni heitinni sem sýndi mér ávallt stuðning í einu og öllu. Viktor Elfar Bjarkason maður minn og besti vinur fær þakkir fyrir hina miklu þolinmæði og stuðning í gegnum skrifin og síðast en ekki síst fær nýfæddur sonur minn sérstakar þakkir fyrir að leyfa mér að klára ritgerðina á réttum tíma. 5 Table of Contents Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 8 1 International Agreements and Regional Cooperation .............................................. 13 1.1 The Palermo Protocol .................................................................................................... 13 1.2 The Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings . 17 1.3 A Reason for a New Convention ................................................................................... 19 1.4 GRETA—Group of Experts Against Trafficking in Human Beings ............................ 22 1.5 Nordic-Baltic Project ..................................................................................................... 24 2 Theoretical Structure ................................................................................................ 30 2.1 Liberalism ..................................................................................................................... 31 2.2 Norm Entrepreneurs ...................................................................................................... 35 2.3 Feminism ....................................................................................................................... 37 2.4 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 40 3 The Nordic Countries ............................................................................................... 42 4 Finland ...................................................................................................................... 44 4.1 Agreements and Regulations ......................................................................................... 44 4.2 Prostitution Legislation ................................................................................................. 46 4.3 Efforts to Combat Trafficking ....................................................................................... 48 4.4 Non-governmental Organizations ................................................................................. 51 4.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 52 5 Denmark ................................................................................................................... 53 5.1 Agreements and Regulations ......................................................................................... 53 5.2 Prostitution Legislation ................................................................................................. 54 5.3 Efforts to Combat Trafficking ....................................................................................... 57 5.4 Non-governmental Organizations ................................................................................. 60 5.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 61 6 Sweden ..................................................................................................................... 63 6.1 Agreements and Regulations ......................................................................................... 63 6.2 Prostitution Legislation ................................................................................................. 65 6.3 Efforts to Combat Trafficking ....................................................................................... 69 6.4 Non-governmental Organizations ................................................................................. 71 6.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 73 7 Norway ..................................................................................................................... 75 7.1 Agreements and Regulations ......................................................................................... 75 6 7.2 Prostitution Legislation ................................................................................................. 76 7.3 Efforts to Combat Trafficking ....................................................................................... 78 7.4 Non-governmental Organizations ................................................................................. 80 7.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 82 8 Iceland ...................................................................................................................... 84 8.1 Agreements and Regulations ......................................................................................... 84 8.2 Prostitution Legislation ................................................................................................. 86 8.3 Efforts to Combat Trafficking ....................................................................................... 90 8.4 Non-governmental Organizations ................................................................................. 94 8.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 97 9 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 100 9.1 Is Feminist Influence Effective when it comes to Policy Frameworks? ..................... 100 9.2 Can the Nordic Countries and Their NGOs Act as Norm Entrepreneurs in Combating Human Trafficking and Prostitution? ........................................................ 102 9.3 Concluding Remarks ................................................................................................... 104 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 107 7 Introduction In the aftermath of the Cold War, global change was starting to emerge, as the world experienced a massive transition in migration. The former Soviet Union and its post- communist countries experienced an economic and political transition that led to an increase in migratory flow where people moved away from the East to the West in search of employment and a better life. A global free market economy enforced poorer post- communist states to increase their exports and market exchange