Master’s Program in Language and Culture in Europe Department of Language and Culture Linköping University Sweden Alia Amir Chronicles of the English Language in Pakistan: A discourse analysis of milestones in the language policy of Pakistan Supervisor: Dr. Nigel Musk 1 December 2008 2 Contents 1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................6 1.1 Aim of the study……………………………………………………………………………………………………….6 1.2 Outline of the study.....................................................................................................7 2 Theoretical and Methodological Framework..............................................8 2.1 Social Constructionism............................................................................................ 8 2.2 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………………………….8 2.3 The Data……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….9 3 The Colonial Discourses in British Indian Education, 1835...................... ..10 3.1 Colonial Education..................................................................................................10 3.2 The Orientalists and the Anglicists.................................................................... ..12 3.3 The Minute on Indian Education.........................................................................13 3.4 The Colonialists’ Discourses of Language Policy Documents..............................13 3.5 Superiority of the Language, Culture and Education............................................13 4 The 1970s............................................................................................20 4.1 The Symbolic Value of Urdu................................................................................20 4.1.1 The Medium of Instruction Controversy..............................................................21 4.2 The Constitution of Pakistan 1973.................................................................21 3 5 The Discourses in Pakistani Education, 2008.........................................26 5.1 The Discourses in the Draft NEP 2008 ………………………………………………………………..27 5.2 Draft National Education Policy 2008…………………………………………………………………..27 6 Discussion and Conclusions......................................................................30 References…………………………………………………………………………………32 4 1 Introduction I have selected three important phases in Pakistani education with a spotlight on language policy. I believe a brief introduction to the socio-linguistic situation of Pakistan is mandatory before we move on. Pakistan came into being on 14th August, 1947. Before its independence, Pakistan was a part of British India together with modern-day India and Bangladesh. Pakistan was divided into two parts: the East Wing (which acquired independence in 1971, and came into being as Bangladesh) and the West Wing (comprising present-day Pakistan.) Present-day Pakistan has four provinces, each with a provincial language, which are Sindhi, Baluchi, Pashto and Punjabi. The official language of Pakistan is English which is used in important seats of government, the judiciary, the armed forces, commerce and higher education. The Constitution of Pakistan is codified in English. The Constitution relates Urdu and Pakistan on the basis of nationalism, and thus Urdu is the national language of Pakistan. It is a multilingual country where bilingualism (multilingualism) is a habitual affair even in the life of an average student. The medium of instruction in Pakistan at higher education is exclusively through English. 1.1 Aim of the study: In this thesis, I will be investigating educational policies with a focus on English as a medium of instruction. The medium of instruction in Pakistan varies with respect to each province and the social status of the school. Consequently, English is not taught only as a foreign language but is a medium for upward mobility. I will be investigating the chronicles of English as a medium of instruction in Pakistan both before and after the partition (1947) of British India. I have selected three phases: the mid-eighteenth century, the 1970s and the present decade. I will be tracing the similarities and differences in the language policies of these eras, and identifying any patterns which transcend these eras. I shall deal with each phase separately with a brief introduction and the rationale for their selection. The Colonial period which I have marked as an important phase is before 1857; the First War of Independence (also called the War of Mutiny). This is a period of the British East India Company Rule, and indirect involvement of the British Crown. My thesis revolves around the principle that language policy of an alien origin has played an important role in South Asian history which segregated between the colonized and the colonizer, which later turned to the segregation of the masses on the basis of Anglicised and non-Anglicised. I will also be looking at this segregation, in the LPP documents of the present decade as well. 5 The language policy of the 1970s will be analyzed for the patterns in contrast with the present decade. The 1970s in Pakistan are a period of extraordinary chaos, beginning with a language-based separatist movement in East Pakistan gaining independence in 1971, the execution of a deposed elected prime minister and a nationalist language policy. Here, I would like to shed light on the reason of my label “nationalist” for this policy , as this was the only policy which determined, and made some concrete steps towards the establishment of Urdu as a medium of instruction, and Zia’s reinforcement of Urdu as a symbol of nationalism and Islam. But ironically this could not be implemented, in its true spirit either. This policy will not be dealt in detail, but the effect of its annulations on the present decade, if any. This decade will also be analyzed for patterns linked to the past colonial trajectories and the continuity of policies in favour of the English language as a medium of instruction. I will also be investigating the link between the present decade in relation to the interplay between colonial and Post- colonial influences. I would also like to bring forth the research carried on Pakistan’s language policy. The research carried on colonial India is vast, with researchers like Robert Philipson, and his influential book Linguistic Imperialism (1992). Pennycook (2001) also sheds light on the introduction of English language in colonial context and its implications. My contribution in this field is the comparison between the colonial and post-colonial policies with, Discourse Analysis. The selection of the policies of 2008 is also an advancement in this paper, which has helped in looking at the current policies in Pakistan. 1.2 Outline of the Study This study consists of six chapters, the first of which is this introduction. The second chapter presents the theoretical and methodological framework. The third chapter entitled “The discourses in British Indian Education” examines how English language is discursively constructed in policy documents. Thus the focus gradually narrows and zooms in on one policy document from that era, that is, Macaulay’s Minute. The Chapter 3 entitled “The 1970s”, starts off with the background and historical perspective of the decade, with a focus on the Constitution of Pakistan, 1973, and examines how language policy is constructed. The Chapter 4 moves to the present decade in Pakistan with a brief introduction to the global policies, like Education For All, and their role in current policies, but a focus on the draft National Education Policy, 2008. In the sixth and final chapter, the main results and analyses presented in chapters 3, 4 and 5 will be summarised and discussed in the light of the aims laid out in this introduction. 6 2 Theoretical and Methodological Frameworks The perspective taken in this thesis is that, taken for granted terms like ’medium of instruction’ and ‘Language policy and planning’ are not static or neutral terms. The socio-historical construction of the above mentioned categories is maintained, and changed through various discursive processes. 2.1. Social Constructionism Social constructionism is a sociological theory of “everything that passes for knowledge in society”, and developed by Berger and Luckmann (1966) in their book The Social Construction of Reality. This book draws on symbolic interactionism, which was founded by Mead (1934). In his book Mind, Self and Society. Essential to symbolic interactionism is the stance that we construct our own and each other’s identities in everyday social interaction (Burr, 1995:10). A major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the creation of their perceived reality. The reality which is taken-for-granted thus hides the fact that our knowledge of reality is constructed through human activities. The view of society which they present is “as part of a human world, made by men, inhabited by men, in turn, making men, in an ongoing historical process” (Berger and Luckmann, 1991: 211). From a social constructionist viewpoint, we should be ever suspicious of our assumptions of reality. All knowledge is derived from looking at the world from some perspective, for example, in case of English as a medium of instruction, the status of the English language is taken for granted as the lingua franca of the world or the language for progress. This paradigm becomes a source of reconstructing