A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details A Creole Melting Pot: the Politics of Language, Race, and Identity in southwest Louisiana, 1918-45 Christophe Landry Doctorate of Philosophy in History University of Sussex Submitted September 2015 UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX CHRISTOPHE LANDRY (DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY) A CREOLE MELTING POT: THE POLITICS OF LANGUAGE, RACE, AND IDENTITY IN SOUTHWEST LOUISIANA, 1918-45 SUMMARY Southwest Louisiana Creoles underwent great change between World Wars I and II as they confronted American culture, people, and norms. This work examines that cultural transformation, paying particular attention to the processes of cultural assimilation and resistance to the introduction and imposition of American social values and its southern racial corollary: Jim Crow. As this work makes clear, the transition to American identity transmuted the cultural foundations of French- and Creole-speaking Creole communities. World War I signalled early transformative changes and over the next three decades, the region saw the introduction of English language, new industries, an increasing number of Protestant denominations, and the forceful imposition of racialized identities and racial segregation. Assimilation and cultural resistance characterized the Creole response, but by 1945, southwest Louisiana more closely resembled much of the American South. Creole leaders in churches, schools, and the tourism industry offered divergent reactions; some elite Creoles began looking to Francophone Canada for whitened ethnic identity support while others turned toward the Catholic establishment in Baltimore, Maryland to bolster their faith. Creoles were not the only distinct community to undergo Americanization, but Louisiana Creoles were singular in their response. As this study makes clear – in ways no historian has previously documented – Louisiana Creoles bifurcated as a result of Americanization. This study also contributes to, and broadens, the literature on Acadian identity. Previously, scholars simply assumed that whitened Latins in Louisiana had always identified with Acadia and their black-racialized brethren with Haiti. This thesis, however, suggests that Cajun and Creole are not opposites. Rather, they derive from the same people and culture, and their perceived and articulated difference emerged in response to Americanization. Through a critical analysis of that bifurcation process, this thesis demonstrates how Acadianized identity and culture emerged in the first half of the 20th century. i Acknowledgements This has been a lifelong journey and I have so much and so many people to be thankful for, beginning with the following family members, who have showered me with love, affection, and sustenance, or have encouraged and supported my intellectual and cultural growth in some important way: Doris Landry, Lennis and Agnes C. Landry, Warren and Rose-Marie Landry Joseph, Eva Fuselier, Eddie-Lee and Brenda Landry Chrétien, Richard and Rita Faye Sparrow Landry, Acie and Dianne Landry Freeman, Sharon Broussard Landry, Michael and Pamela Frank Landry, Leroy and Pamella Lewis Hill, Kenwood and Dianne Butler Hartman, Carissima Joseph, Javella Joseph Raheem, Nichole Joseph Broussard, Mia Landry, Kendra Hill, Keasha Hill Brown, Kenya Hill, Raymond Décuir, Kevin and Keri Champagne Thibodeaux, Geneva Toussaint, and E. B. Hogan. A number of additional family members were especially influential in cultivating and maintaining my appreciation for Louisiana history and culture: Agatha Le Doux Sonnier, Alzena de Blanc Seymour, Barry Post, Bernadette Nelson, Bianca Chrétien, Esq., Brian Martinet, Camilla Marie Destouet, Courtney Mannino, Crystal Destouet, Cynthia Warren-Clark, Darnella Barjon, David Michael Bullock, Rep. Dawnna Dukes, Dianna Simien Bracamontes, Donna Seymour Bullock, Elizabeth Chrétien, Dr. Émile Rochon, Enole de Blanc Sias, Gail Vavasseur, Gladys Petrie Sweet, Gregory Victor Chrétien, Gwendolyn Chrétien Berry, Gwendolyn Vavasseur Mason, Dr. Hildred Rochon, Inèz Journet, Jackie Siears, Jason Nelson, Joachim Rochon, Joël Julien, John Frank Destouet II, Joseph Victor Vavasseur Jr., Joséphine Pratt Détiège, Joshua and Nicole Barnes Goenner, Judy Julien, Katherine Destouet, Keila Dawson, Kevin Boutté, Kristin Hinton, Léonard Pratt, Meredee Baker Wall, Mildred de Blanc Rochon, Nathan Vavasseur, Noble Sullivan, Pamela Chrétien Matthew, Dr. Patricia Williams Loofbourrow, Reginald Boutté, Ronald Destouet, Roselyn Simon Pennier, Rear Admiral Stephen W. Rochon, Thelma White Thomas, Thomas Arthur Martinet, Toni Langlais, Ursula Rochon, and William Feggins. I also owe thanks to Edna Ambrose, Harriet Hill, Elder Bastien Lewis, Michael and Pamela Mosely Dempsey, and Roland and Mary Duplantis Romero, who opened their homes and education spaces to me. Several friends have been present through thick and thin, including Tosombra A. Collins, Terrence F. Shaw, Orel W. Letts, Sophie Kelly, Eric Gaither, Shawanda Marie Williams, Dr. Paulette Martínez Bethel, Sogol Joudi, Dr. Haidar Haidar, and Jonathan Younghusband. I'm thankful for the following educators and employees who have impacted my life in no small measure: Mrs. Dardant, Mr. Raz, Karen V. Babineaux, Melanie O'Brian, Dr. Virginia Lewis, Gloria Jackson, Billie Babs Prentice, Faye Watson Jefferson, Gwen Narcisse Antoine, Martha Antoine, Mark Richard, Renée Langley, Joanna Swett, Robert Morgan, Dr. Claudia Morgan, Ms. Qualey, Kevin Hardy, Glenn Conrad, and Drs. Barry Jean Ancelet, Zan Kocher, Carl Brasseaux, Vaughan Burdin Baker Simpson, Deborah Clifton, Mathé Allain, Latifah Bourneo, Leslie Bary, Phebe ii Archon Hayes, Mark Lentz, Andrew Jolivette, Rain Prud'homme-Cranford, Carolyn Dural, and of course, Mrs. Regina Labiche. I'm also grateful for the following researchers, scholars, activists, colleagues, and friends: Adam Drayton Hymans, Alex Lee, Alex Phillips, Ali Fatoorechi, Angie Sandro, Anne Guillory Thom, Anne Marie Laughlin Swanson, Antoine du Rousseau, Belva Wiltz Lasalle, Bonnie Boutté Ford, Brandon Joseph, Esq., Brian Costello, Cat Franklin Donnow, Charity Boutté, Charles A. Honoré, Charles and Joanne Jester, Charles Larroque, Cherryl Forbes Montgomery, Christopher Dugas, Cindy Trahan, Cliford St. Laurent, Dr. Clint Bruce, Corenthia Brown, Daniele Simpson, Dennis Duchêne, Dustin Fuqua, Dustin and Anthea Ancalade, Eric Biagas, Erin Pichanik, Étienne Steven Dugas, Sr. Eva Regina Martin, Dr. Fabiana Mêndes, James Semien, Jan Baumgartner Strickland, Jane Braud, Janet Ravare Colson, Janine Kirkland, Jason Reed, Esq., John Lafleur Jr., John St. Julien, Joseph Dunn, Julie Eschelman-Lee, Dr. Justin Chélette, Keith Abatte, Leslie Castille-Davis, Linda Alexander, Linda Goesling, Lisa Henderson, Esq., Malvenia Pellerin Keller, Marion T. Olivier Ferreira, Margo Latiolais, Mark Boyancé, Martin Lloyd Edwards, Marvin Ellis, Mary Gehman, Mary Magdalene Donovan, Marla López Roberts, Dr. Maurice Basque, Michael Gisclair, Michelle Domingue II, Michelle Pelak Olinger Jolly, Dr. Milad Ghantous, Dr. Mohsen Fatoorechi, Dr. Nathalie Dajko, Nelwyn Hébert, Dr. Nichole Standford Crocco, Patricia Arceneaux Cravens, Patricia Gutekunst, Patricia Kahle, Patricia Robinson, Paul Leblanc, Peggy Somers Fehan, Penelope Major McCarthy, Peter Barrett, Raymond F. Fuenzalida III, Raymond Moore, Rita Tonglet, Dr. Robin White, Rocky McKeon, Rod Hudson, Rodney Sam, Rushton G. James, Russell Jacquet-Acea, Salim Farah, Seán O'Connell, Shannon Boutté, Sherryl de la Houssaye, Shirly Bastien Dailey, Rep. Stephen Juan Ortego, Théodore Brodé, and Tracy Colson Antee. There are many people I wish to acknowledge who were more directly instrumental in the materialization of this doctoral thesis: Elizabeth S. "Betsy" Johnson of the Sisters of Mercy; Barbara Déjean and Candy Brunet at the Diocese of Lafayette; Ann Boltin and Katie Oubre at the Diocese of Baton Rouge; Emilie Gagnet Leumas at the Archdiocese of New Orleans; Jean Kiesel and Carole Massey in the Louisiana Room at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette Dupré Library; Philippe Gustin at Le Centre International; Gertrude Broussard and Becky Patin at the St. Martin Parish Clerk of Court's Office; Danielle Fontenette, Mayor Thomas Nelson, and Velma Johnson with the City of St. Martinville; Jolène Adam and Gayle Marretta at the Acadian Memorial in St. Martinville; Dr. David Chéramie and Elaine Clément, Esq. formerly at the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL); Janel Olivier Rose at the Iberia Parish Courthouse Clerk of Court Office; Jari Honora with the Knights of Peter Claver; Donald Victorian of New Orleans; Ariane Jacques- Côté at McGill University; Oliver Mayeux at Cambridge University; and Elizabeth Shown Mills, longtime editor of the National Genealogical Society Quarterly and unquestionably the leading genealogist and documentation specialist in the United States today. I was fortunate to obtain a bursary from the British Society for the Study