LOUGHBOROUGH UNIVERSITY A HUMAN FACTORS SYSTEMS APPROACH TO EXPLORING VEHICLE ROLLAWAY Valerie G. Noble February 2018 Loughborough Design School Loughborough University Doctoral Thesis This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University © Valerie G. Noble, 2018 Abstract Failure of a parked unattended vehicle to remain stationary, otherwise known as vehicle rollaway, can result in property damage, injury or even fatality. Although the incidence of vehicle rollaway may be under reported, around 8% of drivers and 13% of Approved Driving Instructors surveyed indicated they had experienced a vehicle rollaway event. Unlike previous studies which focused only on the mechanical factors that may contribute to this phenomenon, the research presented in this thesis employed a more comprehensive, systems approach to explore additional factors related to the driver’s interaction with the parking brake system at various interface levels. A mixed methods strategy collated data through two online surveys and three observational studies to explore the organisational, mechanical and driver related factors identified in a fault tree framework. The results indicated that current driver practice and interaction with the parking brake system may be contrary to legislative requirements and manufacturer’s instruction. The findings also suggested that past experience, such as that of vehicle rollaway or parking brake system failure, had a statistically significant influence on whether the driver complied with recommended practice. Driver interaction and the holding capability of the parking brake system was observed in 53 vehicles parked on three test gradients. The observations indicated that drivers were able to apply sufficient force to the parking brake lever to hold the vehicle stationary and that an additional degree of confidence in the system was provided by parking in gear. But, after driving a short commuting route, when the vehicle was parked with the parking brake lever applied to the lowest position to hold the vehicle and a gear was not selected, 63% of vehicles fitted with disc brakes rolled as the temperature returned to ambient. Discussion relates to the organisational, driver related and mechanical components of the parking brake system and in reference to Reason’s Swiss Cheese model, considers how latent failures within the defensive layers of the system can contribute to rollaway. The research findings contributed to a change in UK driving standards and since 2015, drivers are recommended to park in gear at all times to reduce the ii risk of rollaway. This recommendation is likely to require a change in practice for up to 80% of Approved Driving Instructors who would not normally instruct new drivers in this way. Although this research focused on the manually operated parking brake system, the studies have uncovered results that can contribute to knowledge and are applicable to interaction with electronic parking brake systems. As parking brake systems develop, the Human Factors systems approach can be applied retrospectively and proactively to explore that interaction and prevent passenger vehicle rollaway. iii Dedication For Mum. iv Acknowledgements My husband, family and friends for their patience, understanding and support Richard Frampton and John Richardson, Supervisors for guidance and support Eddie Curry and Ben Suffolk at MIRA Allan Morgan (husband) for his electronics expertise The staff at St Luke’s Hospice, Plymouth for their support and participation Ron Spence and the staff at Cornwall Mobility Centre Pen Davies-Gregory for her support and assistance in collecting data Car Park Managers and staff: ● Derriford Hospital, Plymouth ● Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge ● Raigmore Hospital, Inverness ● Birmingham City Hospital ● Gloucester General Hospital Sue Duncan, Lynn Barrie, Approved Driving Instructor National Joint Council Helen Luker, Ian Holden, Driving Standards Agency Dr Bernie Masters for his continued support v Project Outcomes Driving Standards Presentation of interim results and communication with Education Advisers of the Driving Standards Agency has contributed to a change of wording and instruction in the Driving Standards. The 2015 edition of The Official DVSA Guide to Driving – the essential skills, now states “ when you park your vehicle, always leave it in gear and make sure that the parking brake is fully on” (DVSA, 2014, pp. 57-58, 240). Publications Noble, V.G., Frampton, R.J., Richardson J.H., 2015. Exploration of the Factors Associated with a Parked Unattended Vehicle Failing to Remain Stationary – Brake Cooling Effects. In: EuroBrake 2015 Conference Proceedings. Dresden, Germany, 4-6 May 2015. London: International Federation of Automotive Societies (FISITA) ISBN 978-0-9572076-0. Noble, V.G., Frampton, R.J., Richardson J.H., 2014. Ergonomics of Parking Brake Application –Factors to Fail? In: S. Sharples, S.T. Shorrock S.T., eds. 2014. Contemporary Ergonomics and Human Factors. London: Taylor & Francis pp. 48- 488. http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b16742-84. Noble, V.G., Frampton, R.J., Richardson J.H., 2013. Ergonomics of Parking Brake Application: An Introduction. In: L. Dorn, M. Sullman, eds. Driver Behaviour and Training Vol VI. Surrey: Ashgate pp.187-206. Noble, V., 2014. “Now where did I park my car?” The Ergonomist, 523, pp. 4-5. The Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors (IEHF), ISSN: 0268-5639. vi List of Abbreviations The following list describes the various abbreviations and acronyms used throughout the thesis. Abbreviation Meaning ADI Approved Driving Instructors ADINJC Approved Driving Instructor National Joint Council DfT Department for Transport DSA Driving Standards Agency DVSA Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency ECE Economic Commission for Europe EPB Electronic Parking Brake FOI Freedom of Information HC Health Care Workers IAM Institute of Advanced Motorists LU Loughborough University MOT Ministry of Transport MIRA Motor Industry Research Association N Newton NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration PB Parking Brake PING Park in Gear RAIB Rail Accident Investigation Branch ROSPA Royal Society for Prevention of Accidents RPE Rating of Perceived Exertion SAR Static Assessment Rig SLH St Luke’s Hospice SMMT Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe VSB Vehicle Safety Branch VOSA Vehicle and Operators Services Agency vii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Dedication ................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... v Project Outcomes ........................................................................................................ vi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................. vii List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xvii List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xix Chapter 1: Introduction and Background..................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background ...................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Ergonomics and Human Factors ...................................................................... 3 1.3.1 Definition .......................................................................................... 3 1.3.2 Ergonomics exploration of the parking brake system ...................... 4 1.3.3 Description of the task: parking a vehicle to leave it unattended ......................................................................................... 5 1.4 Aim and Scope of the Research ....................................................................... 8 1.4.1 Aim and objectives ........................................................................... 8 1.5 Structure of the Thesis ..................................................................................... 8 1.6 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2: Defining the Problem ............................................................................... 13 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 13 2.2 Exploring the Accident Data.......................................................................... 13 2.3 Freedom of Information (FOI) Requests ....................................................... 15 2.3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 15 2.3.2 Freedom of information request to UK police constabularies ........ 15 2.3.3 FOI responses ................................................................................. 16 2.4 Access to Motor Insurance Databases ........................................................... 16 2.5 Media Reports ...............................................................................................