CAROLINE L. LEACHMAN FROM AN 'UNRULY SECT' TO A SOCIETY OF 'STRICT UNITY': THE DEVELOPMENT OF QUAKERISM IN ENGLAND c. 1650-1689 Thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D. in History September, 1997 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON ABSTRACT By 1689 Quakers had changed sufficiently from their 'radical' beginnings to be included in the Toleration Act of that year. This thesis examines key areas of Quaker thought and practice from c. 1650-1689 in an attempt to explain why Quakers became more acceptable. Although 1660 was an obvious turning point in Quakerism, many changes did not occur until some years later. Of utmost importance was the development of the highly efficient network of both central and local business meetings during the later 1660s and into the 1670s which provided a framework for further change in the sense that organization helped to bring about some degree of control in the movement. Coupled with this were changes in patterns of leadership and authority. Quakerism developed from a movement relying on charismatic leadership to one based much more on the authority of the central bodies in London. Crucial too were the many shifts in religious thought which can be seen clearly in Quaker catechisms over the period. There was a gradual move towards more orthodox doctrinal standpoints during the 1660s and l670s in areas where Quakers had been deemed heretical, for example in their notion of the 'inner light' and its relation to the incarnate Christ and Quaker views of the Trinity. The most noticeable change came in Quaker behaviour. By 1689, Quakers had dropped the enthusiastic activities of earlier years such as 'testifying by signs' which had attracted such attention and were no longer seen as social radicals. Anti-Quaker sources confirm this view: Quakers were still viewed with suspicion in relation to their religious beliefs but they were no longer perceived as the wild individuals of the l6SOs who had appeared to their adversaries to be intent on destroying the social order. Acknowledgments I am grateful to Dr. Nicholas Tyacke for his help and guidance throughout the four years spent on this thesis. Thanks also to the archivists and librarians at Friend's House Library for their advice and assistance. On a more personal note I would like to thank my family- James, Dorothy and Anthony Leachman for their support, and Ian Kirwan and Jill Isted for their assistance with the more practical matters involved in producing the thesis. CONTENTS List of Abbreviations V Introduction 1-5 chapter i Quaker Doctrine c. 1650-1689 6-64 chapter 2 Quaker 'Central' Organization 65 -117 c. 1650-1689 chapter 3 Quaker Local Organization 118-186 c. 1650-1689 chapter 4 Quaker Leadership c. 1650-1670 187-224 chapter 5 Quaker Leadership c. 1670-1689 225-244 chapter 6 Quaker Behaviour c. 1650-1689 245-285 chapter 7 Anti-Quaker Writings c. 1650-1689 286-327 Appendices 328 -371 Bibliography 372 -3 86 Abbreviations B.L.L Brotherton Library, Leeds D.W.L. Dr. William's Library, London E.S.R.O East Sussex Record Office, Lewes E.Y.R.O East Yorkshire Record Office, Beverley F.H.L Friend's House Library, London L.P.S. Letters and Papers Respecting the Separatists, B.L.L. S.Q.M.M. Sussex Quarterly Meeting Minutes, E.S.R.O. Y.Q.M.M. Yorkshire Quarterly Meeting Minutes, B.L.L. Th1TROD UCTION The aim of this thesis is to examine changes within Quakerism, from its position as a 'radical' movement in the 1650s to its subsequent acquisition of respectability, as typified by the Quakers' inclusion in the Toleration Act of 1689. Although a number of older histories of early Quakerism exist, they are rather general in nature. W.C. Braithwaite's valuable two volume study on the subject is the standard work on Quakerism and deals closely with Quakerism in the 1650s, but the second volume covers a broad period from 1660 well into the early 18th century. 1 Conversely, the modern historiography of Quakerism tends to be rather specialized; historians such as Hugh Barbour and Geoffrey Nuttall, for example, stress the religious aspects of Quakerism, whilst Christopher Hill, Barry Reay and others have concentrated on the social and political elements and have analysed the movement mainly within the context of the English Civil War.2 As a result no overall picture exists of the transitions in Quakerism and why Friends were able to achieve toleration in 1689. Barry Reay includes a chapter on post-Restoration Quakerism and sketches some ideas, yet he admits that 'it is 'W.C. Braithwaite, The Beginnings of Quakerism (London, 1912, reprinted, York, 1981); The Second Period of Quakerism (London, 1919, reprinted, York, 1979) 2 Hugh Barbour, The Quakers in Puritan England ( New Haven, 1964, repr. 1985); Geoffrey F. Nuttall, The Holy Spirit in Puritan Faith and Experience ( Oxford 1946, new edition with introduction by Peter Lake, Chicago and London, 1992); Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (London, 1972); Barry Reay, The Quakers and the English Revolution ( London, 1985) 1 easier to chart the transformation of Quakerism after 1660 than it is to account for it' . A number of themes have been selected as a framework with which to analyse the changes within early Quakerism; these cover doctrine, organization, leadership, behaviour and anti- Quaker writing. The opening chapter analyses doctrinal developments over the period and examines major tenets of Quaker theology such as their idea of the 'inner light' and its relation to the incarnate Christ, the Quaker belief in perfection and their questioning of the orthodox view of the Trinity, as well as covering aspects of Quaker worship. Although 1650s Quaker doctrine has been well-documented, there are gaps for the post-Restoration period. As Barry Reay has pointed out, 'We still do not know enough about the long-term development of Quaker theology to reach any firm conclusions about the period after 1660'. The second chapter on Quaker 'central' organization examines the move towards, and establishment in the l670s, of the three central meetings in London: the Yearly Meeting and the two executive meetings- the Meeting for Sufferings and the Second Day Morning Meeting. Although some work has been done on these, particularly the latter two meetings, by Craig Horle and Thomas O'Malley respectively, certain areas have not been adequately explored, for example membership of these meetings 3 Reay, Quakers and the English Revolution, p. 121. 4 lbid., p. 112. 2 and financial matters.5 The establishment of a 'central' organization was very important in the development of Quakerism, as was that of the local meeting system which began to take shape in the late 1660s under the instigation of George Fox; the effect of organization was to have a restraining influence on the more enthusiastic tendencies in early Quakerism which was crucial if the movement was to become generally accepted. Whilst a number of studies of Quakerism in different regions exists, on the whole these tend not to relate the functions of the local meetings to those of the central meetings in London, with the exception of Nicholas Morgan's work on Lancashire. 6 The growth of the network of meetings; preparative, monthly and quarterly meetings as well as their functions, membership and interaction with the London meetings, is the subject of chapter three. The fourth chapter comprises an investigation of Quaker leadership and analyses how far this influenced the overall development of the movement. The contributions and significance of major Quaker figures such as George Fox, Margaret Fell, James Nayler, George Whitehead, William Penn 5 Craig Horle, The Quakers and the English Legal System 1660-1688 (Philadelphia, 1988); Thomas O'Malley, '"Defying the Powers and Tempering the Spirit". A Review of Quaker Control over their Publications 1672-1689', Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 33 (1982) 6 For example, Helen Forde, 'Derbyshire Quakers 1650-1761' University of Leicester Ph.D thesis, 1977; E.K.L. Quine, 'The Quakers in Leicestershire 1648-1780' University of Nottingham Ph.D thesis, 1968; D.A. Scott, 'Politics, Dissent and Quakerism in York 1640-1700', University of York, D.Phil thesis, 1990; Nicholas Morgan, Lancashire Quakers and the Establishment 1660-1720 (Halifax, 1993) 3 and Robert Barclay are examined, as well as changes in the nature of Quaker leadership, from that based on charismatic authority in the l650s, to that grounded in the central bodies of the Quaker organization in the 1670s and 80s. An important additional consideration relating to why Quakers became acceptable by 1689 is the changes which took place in their behaviour over the period, and provides the subject of the fifth chapter. This includes analyses of Quakers as an 'ecstatic' movement, attitudes to authority and society, their stance on violence and fighting and Quaker mores and discipline. These issues are well documented for the 1650s by historians such as Christopher Hill and Barry Reay, though less emphasis has been placed on their longer-term development after the Restoration. The sixth chapter examines anti-Quaker writings which are a much under-used source in studies of early Quakerism, with the exception of Barry Reay's work on anti-Quaker responses in the 1650s. 7 It pinpoints the major objections to Friends over the decades, such as their perceived unorthodoxy, aspects of their behaviour and to what extent these views changed or shifted in emphasis. As this tests some of the findings and assumptions of the previous chapters and obviously links in especially with those on doctrine, behaviour, and organization, it is a useful way of concluding the thesis. A number of appendices have been included where it was thought helpful; these are mostly financial accounts from the 7 Reay, Quakers and the English Revolution, Part 2, pp.