Resilience and Coping Strategies of Liberian Former Girl Child Soldiers Living in Ghana by Olive Otubea Okraku A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctoral of Philosophy in Counselling Psychology Department of Educational Psychology University of Alberta © Olive Otubea Okraku, 2017 ii ABSTRACT Ghana is home to approximately1,400 Liberian refugees who survived one of Africa’s most brutal civil wars (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2015). Among these refugees are former child soldiers, who were coerced at a very early age into fighting for different factions in the war (Verhey, 2001). These individuals, often perceived as perpetrators without considering the circumstances of their involvement, wrestle with post-traumatic stress, social adjustment difficulties, and reconciliation challenges (Denov, 2010). While existing research has focused on the impact of war on child soldiers, little attention has been paid to the unique experiences of former girl child soldiers in post-conflict environments. The objectives of the study are threefold: to identify specific factors that contribute to former girl child soldiers’ resiliency, to identify their specific coping strategies for everyday living, and to identify challenges former girl child soldiers face with regard to their reintegration into society. Using a qualitative research methodology, specifically focused ethnography (Knoblauch, 2005), the study used Ollenrenshaw and Creswell’s (2002) narrative analysis to tell individual stories of the participants as well as following Roper and Shapira’s (2000) thematic analysis framework using interviews, non-participant observations, and document analysis to explore and identify resilience and coping resources in 8 Liberian former girl child soldiers. Results indicate that challenges the participants experienced were twofold: the challenges during the conflict in Liberia and those they faced in the Buduburam camp in Ghana. Challenges in Liberia include forced recruitment processes by reluctantly joining groups for their own safety, being victimized for sexual purposes, and witnessing murders. Reintegration challenges in Ghana include psychosocial difficulties, lack of support for basic needs, language barriers, and adjustment difficulties. iii Coping resources used by participants fall under three themes: social support, spiritual practices, and beliefs and individual resilience qualities and practices. Social support includes seeking and receiving support from church, neighbours, and pastors. Spiritual practices and beliefs encompass praying, fasting, upholding church rituals and practices, as well as belief in God. Individual qualities and practices incorporate work, self-reliance, positive mindset, and hope. Overall, the results have demonstrated the unique resilience and coping resources utilized by this population. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that this population is resilient in the face of adversity and survivors are not living lives overshadowed by trauma. iv PREFACE This thesis is an original work by Olive Otubea Okraku. The research project, of which this thesis is a part, received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board 1, Project Name “Resilience and Coping in Liberian Former Girl Child Soldiers,” No. Pro00052727, December 9, 2014. v DEDICATION To mama, for loving me, taking care of me, and setting me on the path that has made me who I am. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to everyone who helped make this thesis a reality. I am appreciative of Dr. Sophie Yohani for her steadfast support and guidance, while utilizing her expansive, enriched field experience with refugees to contribute to my research. She showed me unwavering support not only during my research but also throughout my personal circumstances. My sincere gratitude also goes to Dr. Denise Larsen for being part of and supportive of my professional and personal development even before becoming a committee member of this research. I thank her for adapting her teaching style to support me during my Ph.D. program. My deepest appreciation also goes to Dr. Linda Kreitzer for sharing her professional and personal experiences with me, which have enabled me to be prepared for the practical reality of working with refugees. I also credit my entire supervisory committee: Dr. Gina Higginbottom, whose invaluable input deepened my appreciation for focused ethnography; Dr. Jim Eliuk, for his constant support and discussions that challenged me to think outside the box; Dr. Carol Leroy, for her constructive feedback during my candidacy. Furthermore, I am eternally grateful to all the participants who allowed me to be part of their lives for several months, sharing their intimate experiences with me. I have learned to appreciate life more, especially the little things I used to take for granted. I also learned to persevere and never give up hope to achieve my goals. I am also appreciative of all the funding sources such as the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for supporting this research. My final thanks goes to my partner and my son who created time for me to work on my research during weekends. Thank you for your patience and all the sacrifices you made throughout the entire process. I am pleased to share this success with you all. Thank you. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... II PREFACE ..................................................................................................................................... IV DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... VI TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. VII LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... XII LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... XIII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... XIV CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Definition of a Child Soldier ...................................................................................................... 3 West Africa Migration Trends .................................................................................................... 5 Ghana Refugee Migration Trends ............................................................................................... 7 Former Girl Child Soldiers ......................................................................................................... 8 Research Problem ..................................................................................................................... 10 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 12 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 13 Brief History of Liberia Civil War ........................................................................................... 13 Role and Experiences of Women/Girls in the Liberia Civil War ............................................. 14 Women’s involvement in armed conflict. ............................................................................. 15 Women in the Liberian peace movement. ............................................................................. 16 Liberian Refugees in Ghana ..................................................................................................... 17 Psychological and Psychosocial Impact of War on Women/Girls ........................................... 20 Child Soldiers ........................................................................................................................... 22 Recruitment and reintegration of child soldiers. ................................................................... 22 Liberian child soldiers. .......................................................................................................... 23 Voluntary Recruitment ............................................................................................................. 24 Forced Recruitment ................................................................................................................... 26 Mental Health of Former Girl Child Soldiers/Child Soldiers ................................................... 27 Psychological Impacts .............................................................................................................. 27 Impact of Sexualized Violence ................................................................................................. 30 Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Former Girl Child Soldiers .............................................. 32 Stigma and Invisibility .............................................................................................................