Political Awareness of the Shi'ites in Lebanon: The Role of Sayyid `Abd al-Husain Sharaf al-Din and Sayyid Musa al-Sadr By Hussein M. Gharbieh The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies University of Durham 1996 1 3 JAN 1997 CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES IV LIST OF MAPS V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VI GLOSSARY VII ACKNOWLEDGMENT IX ABSTRACT XI INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE THE OTTOMAN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM AND THE AUTONOMY OF JABAL 'AMIL-13 1. THE ORIGINS OF THE SMITTES IN LEBANON 14 2. THE OTTOMAN TAXATION SYSTEM AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF LAND CONTROL 19 2.1 Development of control over land since the eighteenth century 19 3. SHTITE RELATIONS WITH MOUNT LEBANON AND THE OTTOMAN PASHAS 20 3.1 Ottoman attitudes towards the Shi'ites and their effects on inter-communal conflict 22 3.2 Shi'ite autonomy and communal conflict 1768-1865 27 3.3 The beginning of the decline 34 CHAPTER TWO THE EFFECT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND THE RISE OF NATIONALISM ON THE SIITITES OF JABAL 'AMU, 1800-1943 38 1. THE WORLD ECONOMY AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF 'I fib SIII'ITES 39 1.1 French dominance and changing social order 40 1.2 Economy of Jabal 'Amil and its relevance to European powers 46 2. SIVITE ATTITIJDES TOWARDS RISING NATIONAL IDEAS 52 CHAPTER THREE THE ROOTS OF A SHTITE IDENTITY: POLITICAL DYNAMISM 1900 - 1920 64 1. THE `ULAMA'S PERCEPTION OF POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT 66 2. SAYYID SHARAF AL-DIN'S INVOLVEMENT IN LOCAL POLTTICS 69 2.1 Kamil al-As'ad 71 2.2 Rida al-Sulh 75 3. ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INDEPENDENT SBECITE LEADERSHIP 77 I 3.1 The aspirations of the Maronites 80 3.2 Shi'ites opposition to the French 83 3.2.1 French relations with Kamil al-As'ad 83 3.2.2 The Shi'ite conference of al-Hujair 85 3.2.3 Shi'ite armed resistance 88 4. FRENCH INFLUENCE AND THE RISE OF NEW ZU'AMA 94 4.1 Incorporation of the Shi'ites into Greater Lebanon 95 4.2 The turning of the Sulhis to Greater Lebanon 99 CHAPTER FOUR POLITICAL AWARENESS AND THE ROLE OF SAYYID SHARAF AL-DIN 102 1. SAYYID SHARAF AL-DNIS SOCIAL REFORM 102 1.1 Education under the Ottomans 102 1.2 Education under the French 105 1.3 The Shi'ite attempts to improve education 109 2. AL-JAIFARIYYA SCHOOL AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR JABAL 'Amu, 112 2.1 The start of al-Ja'fariyya school 112 2.2 The Objectives 115 2.3 Financial structure 117 2.4 Expansion of al-Ja'fariyya 118 3. THE POLITICAL ROLE OF AL-JATARIYYA 123 3.1 The attitude of al-Ja'fariyya towards the Palestinians 124 3.2 Chamounist's policy and its effects on Jabal Amil 126 3.2.1. Continuation of power struggle in Tyre 127 3.2.2 al-Ja'fariyya's support for Arab-cause 129 3.3 al-Ja'fariyya and Iran 132 CHAPTER FIVE OPPORTUNITIES FOR CHANGE AND THE ROLE OF MUSA AL-SADR 137 1. CONTROVERSIES OVER AL- SADR'S ARRIVAL 138 2. THE CONSOLIDATION OF AL-SADR'S POSMON IN LEBANON 145 2.1 The support of Najaf 146 2.1.1 Shaikh Muhammad Jawad Mughniyya and his opposition to Musa al-Sadr 147 2.2 al-Sadr's perception of `ulama's role and the effects of socio-economic development in society 151 2.2.1 Emerging _friction between al-Sadr and fellow `ulama 152 2.2.2 Independence of the `ulama and the role of al-Sadr 153 2.2.3 Socio-economic modernization and its effects on social structure 156 3. AL-SADVS ATTITUDES TOWARD THE LEBANESE SOCIETY 164 3.1 Social welfare activities 170 3.2 Relations with other communities 174 3.3 The intellectual activities of al-Sadr 175 CHAPTER SIX THE BASIS OF SIH'ITE TRANSFORMATION: THE RISE AND DECLINE OF NATIONAL LEADERSHIP 179 1. THE SUPRE1VIE ISLAMIC SufrrE COUNCIL, 182 II 1.1 Social reforms of al-Sadr: consistency or contradiction? 187 1.1.1 al-Sadr's moderate trend 188 1.1.2 Political upheaval 191 1.1.3 al-Sadr's criticism of the state 192 1.1.4 Shi'ite demands 204 2. HARAKAT AL-MAHRUMIN 206 3. BEGINNING OF THE DECLINE 213 3.1 The civil war 213 3.2 Amal and mobilisation of the Shi'ites 215 CHAPTER SEVEN SETTING PRIORITIES AL-SADR'S ATTITUDES TOWARDS LEBANESE NATIONALISM AND PALESTINIAN ASPIRATIONS 221 1. FADING POWER OF THE ZU'AMA 222 1.1 al-Sadr and al-As'ad's struggle over the south 223 2. AL- SADR'S POLITICAL STANDS DURING flit, CIVIL WAR 229 2.1 The integrity of Lebanon and al-Sadr's support for the Palestinians 230 2.2 al-Sadr-Junblat relationships and the integrity of Lebanon 234 2.2.1 Junblat's path to revolution 236 2.2.2 The position of al-Sadr and Junblat towards the Syrian initiative in Lebanon 240 2.3 Libya's involvement in Lebanese civil war 247 2.4 Leftist oriented Shi'ite 'ulama 251 CONCLUSION 258 BIBLIOGRAPHY 269 ifi List of Tables TABLE 1: PLANTATION OF MULBERRY TREES IN LEBANON IN 1860. 44 TABLE 2: GREATER LEBANON'S POPULATION IN 1921 61 TABLE 3: POPULATION OF JABAL ' AMII, IN 1917 78 TABLE 4: A COMPARISON OF THE POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN I ah. MUTASARRIFIYYA AND GREATER LEBANON 82 TABLE 5: SECTARIAN DISTRIBUTION OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMMITTEE FROM 22 SEPTEMBER 1920 TO MARCH 1922. 97 TABLE 6: OTTOMAN SCHOOLS IN BEIRUT PROVINCE IN 1886 104 TABLE 7: NON-MUSLIM SCHOOLS IN BEIRUT PROVINCE IN 1886. 105 TABLE 8: DISTRIBUTION OF HIGHER ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS AMONG RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES IN 1946 r1955 106 TABLE 9: TOTAL NUMBER OF SCHOOLS UNDER FRENCH MANDATE IN 1939. 108 TABLE 10: ILLITERACY RATE AMONG THE LEBANESE commuNrnEs IN 1932 108 TABLE 11: EXPANSION OF AL-JA'FARTYYA IN TYRE FROM 1938 TO 1951 121 TABLE 12: THE IMPORTANCE OF AL-JA'FARTYYA SCHOOL IN THE CITY OF TYRE AND ITS ENVIRONS IN 1950 IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SCHOOLS 122 TABLE 13: RURAL MIGRATION TO THE URBAN CENTRE IN 1970. 159 TABLE 14: DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING AND MINING ESTABLISHMENTS IN 1955 160 TABLE 15: DISTRIBUTION OF CIVIL SERVICE FIRST CATEGORY POSTS AMONG THE VARIOUS COMMUNITIES (1946-1974). 162 TABLE 16: MAJOR POPULATION GROUPS IN 1932, 1956 AND 1977 BY RELIGION. 162 IV LIST OF MAPS MAP 1: SHI'ITES CONCENTRATION IN LEBANON TODAY XD1 MAP 2: MAIN TOWNS AND VILLAGES IN JABAL 'AMIL MENTIONED IN CHAPTER ONE ALONG WITH THE MAIN VILLAGES BORDERING WITH PALESTINE AND SYRIA. 12 MAP 3: SlifITE PRESENCE IN TRIPOLI AND MOUNT LEBANON BEFORE MAMLUK AND OTTOMAN RULE 17 MAP 4: BASIS OF GUERRILLA GROUPS AND MAJOR TOWNS AND VILLAGES IN JABAL 'AMU, MENTIONED IN CHAPTERS THREE AND FOUR 63 MAP 5: MAJOR CMES, TOWNS AND VILLAGES MENTIONED IN CHAPTERS FIVE, SIX AND SEVEN. 136 V List of Abbreviations IAA: Lebanese Arab Army. LNM: Lebanese National Movement. MEA: Middle East Airlines. NLP: National Liberal Party. PFLP: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. PLA: Palestinian Liberation Army. PLO: Palestinian Liberation Organization. PSP: Progressive Socialist Party. SISC: Supreme Islamic Shi'a Council. SSNP: Syrian Nationalist Socialist party. Glossary Note: In transliterating Arabic, I have used on the system preferred by the International Journal of Middle East Studies. Non-Western terms are italicized and bolded and are defined either in the text on first occurrence or in the glossary. Non-Western terms specifically as used in Lebanese context: `amma: public. `Ashura: the tenth day of Muharram. This day represents in the Islamic calendar the death of the Prophet's grandson Imam Husain at Karbala in Iraq in 680 CE. `ayan: notables. `uhda: something to be looked after. 'ulama: learned men of religion. Al: one's family or kinsmen. Not to be confused with the definite article al-. amir liwa: governor of a sanjaq. amir: prince, governor, tribal leader. fatwa: religious edict. fiqh: religious jurisprudence. hakim: governor. hawzat (pl of hawza): Shi'ite religious schools. ijtihad: using reason to interpret the law. imam: a man who leads a prayer or a community. imamate: religious leadership of a community. imami Shi'ism (Twelver Shi'ism): Shi'ites who believe in the succession of twelve imams. iqta': a grant of land revenues under the Ottoman. Jabal `Amil: Mount 'limn. jihad: holy war. jizya: special poll tax paid by Christians and Jews under Muslim rule. kuttab: primitive type of school marja' al-Taqlid: source of emulation. marajia' (p1 of marja'): an authoritative religious scholars. VII matawila (pL of mitwali): sobriquet for the Shi'ites in Lebanon. millet: religio-national communities. miri: belonging to state. mufti: official expounder of religious law. muhafaza: administrative unit. mujtahid: one who carries out ijtihad. Mulk: state property. multazim: Ottoman tax farmer. muqata'a: renting contract. muqata'ji: holder of the right to an iqta'. mutasarrif governor of a mutasarrifiyya. mutasarrifiyya: subdivision of a wilaya in Ottoman times. A special term used in 1861 in Mount Lebanon. nahiya: an Ottoman administrative unite (locality). qa'immaqamate: sub-district. qada: sub-district. risala: thesis. Sanjaq: district. sayyid: in Shi'ite lexicon, a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad who is identified by his black turban. tapu: ownership registration document.