Page 1 June - 2010 Page 1 PREFACE Mining Development Cell as a part of the Inspectorate of Mines & Minerals Department, Punjab was established in 1990. Its main function besides others was to develop curricula and books in subjects of mining for the students of Punjab School of Mine, Katas and Mines Survey Institute Makerwal. It was felt that books already available on mining subjects were mainly for degree courses and beyond the reach of most of the students firstly because they were too costly and secondly their contents were beyond the syllabus of diploma/certificate level courses. The first edition of “Elements of Mining” was written in June 2001 for the students of Punjab School of Mines, Katas District Chakwal and Mine Survey Institute Makerwal, District Mianwali. It needed many corrections & improvement. Mining Development Cell put all its effort to bring the new addition with improved, contents; text and topics. I am thankful to Engr. Muhammad Khalid Pervaiz and Engr. Abdul Sattar Mian, Ex-Chief Inspectors of Mines, Punjab, and my colleague, Engr. Rana Nasrullah Khan. Assistant Director, Mining Development Cell for extending full co-operation, guidance and assistance to get revised this book. The book has been prepared in consultation of various mining books mainly. Universal Mining School Courses, Elements of Mining by Lewis and Clarke, Mining Engineers Hand Book by Robert Peele to make it a model guide book for Diploma/Certificate Level studies. Any comments and suggestions for further improvement of this book would be greatly appreciated. Engr. Muhammad Tehzib Hassan Ansari Chief Inspector of Mines, Punjab, Lahore. Page 3 Chapter No. CONTENTS Page No. 1. Value and Importance of mining Industry in Pakistan and Definition Relating to Mining. Introduction 1 Mineral Potential of the Country 1 Nature of Mining Industry 2 Present Status of Mining Industry & Major Constraints 2 Future Prospects 4 Definitions Relating to Mining 6 2. Prospecting & Exploration of Mineral Deposits Sequence of Activities (Introduction) 10 Prospecting procedures 10 Methods of Prospecting (various Techniques involves) 10 Geological Prospecting 10 Geo‐Physical Prospecting 11 Seismic Prospecting 11 Electrical conductivity Prospecting 12 Magnetic Prospecting 12 Geo‐Chemical Prospecting 12 Exploration 13 Difference between Resource & Reserve 13 Difference between proven, Indicated/Probable & Possible 13 Page I Reserves Methods of Exploration 13 Comparison of Diamond Drills & Churn Drills 14 3. Development and Exploitation. Development (Definition) 15 Sequence of Development 15 Exploitation 16 Factors involved in Selection of a Mining Method 16 Classification of Mining Method 17 Surface Mining Methods 17 Underground Mining Methods 18 4. Drilling and Boring Introduction 20 Difference between Drilling & Boring 20 Types of Drilling Machine 20 Rotary Drilling 20 Percussive Drilling 21 Churn Drilling 22 Hammer Drills Machines 23 Types of Hammer Drills 23 Drifter 24 Sinker 24 Page II Stoper 24 Boring Method 25 Types of Boring Method 25 Percussive Boring 25 Rotary Boring 25 Tunnel‐Boring Machines 25 5. Explosives Definition 27 Types of Explosives 27 Low Explosives 27 Black Powder & Gun Powder High Explosives 28 Nitro‐Glycerin, Dynamites (its types) Blasting Gelatin 30 Emulsion Explosives 30 Emulite Explosive Products 30 ANFO 31 Permitted Explosive 31 Characteristics of Permitted Explosive 31 Types of Permitted Explosive 32 6. Blasting Blasting Properties of Explosive 33 Page III Firing Methods 36 Non Electric 36 Safety Fuse with plain detonator 36 Detonating Cord (Wabo Card) 37 NONEL 38 ii) Electric Firing 39 Instantaneous – Milli‐Second & Half Second Detonators 39 Blasting Patterns 40 Cut Holes, Drag Cut, V‐Cut, Pyramid Cut, Burn Cut, Toe Cut 40 Underground Blasting 43 Shot holes in coal 43 Shot holes in Ripping 44 Surface Blasting 44 Safety Precautions in Drilling & Blasting 45 Direct & Inverse Initiation 45 Stemming Materials 46 Miss‐Fired Shots 46 Procedure after Miss‐Fire 47 7. Underground Supports Introduction 48 Types of Supports 48 Pillars Supports 48 Page IV Timber Support. & Types of Timber Supports and advantages 48 One Piece Set 49 Two Piece Set 49 Three & Four Pieces and Polygon Set 50 Square Set 50 Rigid Steel Props Types of Rigid Steel Props 51 Grider type 51 New Battle Prop 51 The Butterley Prop 51 S.F.Prop 52 Steel Arches 52 Continuous Rib Type 53 Rib & Post Type 53 Rib and Wall plate type 53 Rib, Wall plate & Post 54 Full Circle rib. 54 Yielding Arches 55 Steel tubing 56 Roof Bolting 56 Types of Roof Bolting 56 Application of Roof Bolting 57 Application of floor Bolting 57 Page V Advantages of roof and Floor Bolting 58 Friction Prop 58 Hydraulic Props 59 Concrete 60 Stowing/ Waste Fillings 60 Methods of Stowing 60 8. Material Handling Introduction 62 Loading Machines 62 Surface Loading – Excavation Machine 62 Power Shovels. 62 Drag Lines. 63 Comparison Between power shovels & drag lines. 64 BullDozer. 64 Scraper. 64 Comparison between bulldozers & scrapers. 64 Bucket Wheel Excavator. 65 Front and Loader 66 Underground Loading Machines. 66 Gathering Arm Loaders. 66 Rocker Shovel (Shovel Loader.) 67 Transportation 67 Page VI Track Haulage 67 Locomotive Haulage‐Advantages. Types of Locomotive Haulage Battery Locomotives Overhead |Trolley wire locomotives. Rope Haulage 68 Types of Rope Haulage 68 68 Director or Main rope haulage. Main & tail rope haulage. 69 Endless rope haulage. 69 Gravity Haulage. 70 II) Trackless Haulage 70 Manual (wheel Barrows) 71 Conveyors (Types of conveyors) 71 Shaker Conveyors 71 The Belt conveyor 71 The Scraper chain conveyor 72 III) Shuttle Cars 72 Hoisting – Types of Hoisting 73 Unbalanced Hoisting 73 Balanced Hoisting 73 9. The Atmosphere and Mine Gases Page VII The Atmosphere 74 Atmospheric Pressure 74 Barometric Changes and their Effects in a Mine 74 Mine Gases 75 Properties, Physiological effects, detection & Uses of Oxygen. 75 Nitrogen. 75 Carbon Dioxide. 75 Carbon Monoxide. 76 Methane. 77 Hydrogen Sulphide. 78 Sulphur Dioxide (Oxides of Sulphur.) 79 Oxide of Nitrogen. 79 80 Fire Damp 80 Black Damp. 81 White Damp. 81 Stink Damp. 81 After Damp. Treatment in Cases of Gassing. 82 Procedure to the followed when a person is found unconscious 82 in an irrespirable atmosphere. 10. Ventilation Natural Ventilation, How it is produced, Calculation for 83 Natural Ventilation. Page VIII Distribution of the Air. 85 Brattice Cloth 85 Stoppings. 86 Doors. 86 Air Crossings. 86 Regulators. 87 Accessional & Descensional Ventilation 88 Homotropal & Antitropal Ventilation 89 Booster Fan (Purpose & Location). 90 Auxiliary Fan (Purpose, types). 90 Advantage & Disadvantages of Forcing Fans. 90 Advantage of Exhaust Fan 91 Fan Ventilation. 91 The Centrifugal or radial flow fan & 91 The Air screw or axial flow fan 92 Comparison between Centrifugal Fans & Air Screw Fan. 93 Reversing of Air. 93 Numericals. 93 11. Mine Water and Its Disposal Origin and Types of Mine Water 95 Rain Water. 95 Underground Water. 95 Methods of Disposing of Mine Water. 95 Page IX Drain Tunnels. 96 Hoisting the water. 96 Sumps. 96 Pumping. 96 Hazards of Water. 96 Types of pumps. 96 Reciprocating pumps & their types 96 Bucket or lift pump 97 Piston pump. 97 Ram or plunger pump. 98 Centrifugal, pumps. 99 Turbine pumps. 100 Sludge. 100 Mono pumps 100 102 Syphon. 12. Mineral Dressing Definition 103 Economic Justification of Mineral Dressing. 103 Various Steps in Mineral Processig. 103 Crushing 103 Definition, Brief Description. 104 Types of crushers 104 Jaw Crushers. 104 Page X Gyratory Crusher and their comparison. 105 Cone crusher. 106 Rolls. 106 Grinding 107 Definition, Brief Description, Ball Mills. 107 Screening & Sizing 108 Definition, brief Description. 108 Types of Screens 109 Stationary Screen 109 Moving Screen 109 Flotation 109 Definition, Brief Description 109 Types of flotation 109 Direct Floatation 109 Reverse Floatation 109 Washing 110 Definition, Brief Description 13. Sampling and Evaluation Definition, Purpose and Importance. 111 Introduction to Various Sampling Methods 111 Core drilling 111 Churn Driooling. 112 Rock drills. 112 Page XI Channel sampling. 112 Blasting down large samples. 112 Test pits. 113 By Augar and post hole diggers. 113 Trencling. 113 Salting & its prevention. 113 Theory of Sampling, (Conditioning Ore) 114 Coning and Quartering 114 Valuation of Mines, Various method and necessary information 114 required. 14. Organization, Management, Safety & Welfare Organization & Types of Organization. 116 Management Duties and Responsibilities 116 Safety & Welfare Aspects, Care of employees. 117 Analysis & Causes of accidents 117 Factors of Accidents in Underground Mining. 119 Factors of Accidents in Open Cut Mining. 119 Prevention of Accidents. 119 Page XII CHAPTER-01 VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF MINING INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN 1.1 Introduction: Pakistan inherited a low mineral base. Mining activity comprised of rock salt, a few scattered coal mines, chromite, gypsum, lime stone and silica sand. In 1948 the production of only 4 minerals was recorded. Unlike the other sectors of economy, mineral sector did not figure prominently in earlier national economic development plans. There were other pressing needs of the country which attracted higher rating in socio-economic priorities and the government had to attend to them first. Notwithstanding the fact that the country needed a firm mineral base of its own for sustained and self-supporting growth of national economy, the mineral sector suffered from neglect and ignorance which is evident from