INTIMIDATION AS A FACTOR IN THE LIBERATION STRUGGLE IN SOUTH AFRICA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BELA BELA WARMBATHS): AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE By LETITIA VAN NIEKERK Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS In the subject ANTHROPOLOGY Atthe UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: Professor F. C. DE BEER CO-SUPERVISOR: Professor L. P. VORSTER JULY 1999 DECLARATION I declare that this dissertation is my own work. It is being submitted for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology at the University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria. It has not been submitted previously for any degree or examination to any other University or Department within UNISA. L. VAN NIEKERK On this 3 o day of =;5 ~' \ ,_1 1999. ·J ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS At the completion of my degree, I wish to express my gratitude towards the following individuals and institutions for their contributions: To Professor Frik de Beer (supervisor) and Professor Louis Vorster (co-supervisor) a special word of gratitude for their tremendous help, guidance and timeless efforts with this study. Your input and critique have helped to shape the format of this study and have challenged me to come to new insights. To my editor, Mrs Dawn Costello, thank-you for your time, interest, efforts and modifications, done sometimes within very limited time. Another special word of gratitude to my parents, to my fiance Dawie de Wet and to my daughter Nadia, who have had to bear the brunt of my frustrations. Thank-you for your continued support, real understanding, patience, motivation and interest without which I would not have been able to complete this study. I dedicate this study to all of you. To the people of Bela Bela who were prepared to invite me into their homes, trusted me and provided me with information required for this study, thank you very much. You also have my sincerest gratitude. Thank you to the members of the former SAP and the SADF who were willing to provide indispensable information for this study. A word of gratitude also to my employer who provided annual financial assistance in the form of bursaries, understanding and study leave. Furthermore, the financial assistance of the Centre for Science Development (CSD) of South Africa towards research in this study is hereby acknowledged. The opinions and conclusions derived at in this study are that of the author and not necessarily attributed to the CSD. ii ABSTRACT INTIMIDATION AS A FACTOR IN THE LIBERATION STRUGGLE OF SOUTH AFRICA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BELA BELA (WARMBATHS): AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The cultural revitalisation or adjustment model of Anthony Wallace provides a basis for interpreting religious, political and other revitalisation movements. This study focuses on political revitalisation movements. Participation in the activities of revitalisation movements does not always occur voluntarily. Leaders of such movements apply techniques and methods of intimidation enforcing change and participation. In South Africa, political revitalisation was inter alia brought about by the ANC as political liberation movement who used methods of violent and non-violent intimidation to force people, regardless of their ethnic affiliation, to support the movement and enforce political change. The ANC inter alia used charactersitic cultural phenomena and components of Bantu-speakers as resources for intimidation to ensure unanimity, participation and ultimately to achieve political liberation. Cultural components that were exploited included communality, group solidarity, administration of justice, songs and dances. 322. 420968 VANN iii EKSERP INTIMIDASIE AS 'N FAKTOR IN DIE VRYHEIDSTRYD IN SUID-AFRIKA MET SPESIALE VERWYSING NA BELA BELA (WARMBAD): 'N ANTROPOLOGIESE PERSPEK.TIEF Kulturele vernuwmg ts 'n universele verskynsel. Anthony Wallace se model van kulturele vernuwing of -aanpassing bied 'n raamwerk vir die verduideliking en interpretasie van die fases waardeur kulturele vernuwingsbewegings van 'n godsdienstige, politieke of ander aard ontwikkel. In hierdie studie word daar uitsluitlik gefokus op vernuwingsbewegings van 'n politieke aard. Aangesien deelname aan die aktiwiteite van kulturele vernuwings- en aanpassingsbewegings nie noodwendig vrywillig geskied nie, het leiers van hierdie bewegings gebruik gemaak van tegnieke en metodes van intimidasie om deelname en vernuwing op die massas af te dwing. In Suid­ Afrika is politieke vernuwing onder andere teweeggebring deur die ANC as politieke bevrydingsbeweging. Die ANC het gebruik gemaak van gewelddadige (harde of direkte) sowel as nie-geweldadige (sagte of indirekte) intimidasie om mense, ongeag hulle etniese aanhorigheid, te dwing om die beweging se oogmerke aktief te ondersteun om politieke verandering te weeg te bring. As dee! van die strategie om deur intimidasie mense tot deelname aan massa-aksies soos optogte, betogings en massa-vergaderings te dwing, het die ANC gebruik gemaak van bepaalde kultuur verskynsels en -komponente wat eie is aan die lewensbeskouinge en lewenswyse van Bantoe-sprekendes. Kultuurkomponente wat suksesvol benut is deur die leiers en lede van bevrydingsbewegings omvat, onder andere verskynsels soos kommunaliteit, groep solidariteit, die regspraak, liedere en danse. Hierdie kultuurkomponente en verskynsels is verander en aangepas om ten eerste eenheid en deelname te bewerkstellig en te verseker en uiteindelik om die hoofdoelwit van politieke bevryding te bereik. iv KEY TERMS Acculturation Bela Bela Cultural adjustment Freedom Charter History Intimidation Kenya Liberation or freedom songs Liberation struggle Mau Mau Necklacing Ostracism People's courts People's justice Punishment Revitalisation movement South Africa Toyi-toyi dances Traditional songs Traditional dances Traditional courts Warmbaths v TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. RESEARCH PROBLEM ................................................................................................. 1 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT .............................................................................................. 2 3. RESEARCH SETTING: BELA BELA IN THE NORTHERN PROVINCE. .......... .4 3 .1 GENERAL ORIENTATION ..................................................................................................... 5 3.2 STRATEGIC POSITION IN THE LIBERATION STRUGGLE ......................................................... 7 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 7 4.1 LITERATURE STUDY ........................................................................................................... 8 4.2 FIELDWORK ..................................................................................................................... 10 4. 2.1 Fieldwork participants ......................................................................................... I 0 4. 2. 2 Interviews ............................................................................................................. I I 4.2.2.1 Nature of interviews ............................................................................................ 11 4.2.2.2 Verification of information ................................................................................. 12 4. 2. 3 Factors impacting on the fieldwork ..................................................................... 12 4.2.3.1 Relationship of trust ............................................................................................ 13 4.2.3 .2 Gender and race .................................................................................................. 13 4.2.3.3 Records ............................................................................................................... 14 5. PRESENTATION OF MATERIAL ............................................................................. 14 vi CHAPTER 2: CULTURE CHANGE AND RESISTANCE 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 16 2. REACTION AND RESISTANCE TO CULTURE CHANGE .................................. 17 3. CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT OR REVIT ALISATI ON AS RESISTANCE TO CULTURAL CHANGE ................................................................................................. 19 3. J MAZEWA Y REFORMULATION OR CODE FORMULATION ..................................................... 20 3.2 COMMUNICATION ...•.•......................•.......•...•.•....•.....•••...•.•....•...•.•....•..•....•..........•.•.....•... 21 3 .3 0RGANISATION ................................................................................................................ 21 3.4 ADAPTATION ...................•..........•.....................................•.....................•......................... 22 3.5 CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION ......................................................................................... 23 3.6 ROUTINISATION ...............................................................................................................23 4. THE MANIFESTATION OF REVITALISATION MOVEMENTS ........................ 24 5. INTI MID ATI 0 N ............................................................................................................ 26 5.1 PURPOSE OF INTIMIDATION ..............................................................................................27 5.2 FORMS OF INTIMIDATION .................................................................................................27 5.2.1 Direct intimidation ..............................................................................................