FULL COURT PRESS: REBELLION, RESISTANCE, AND THE BLACK ATHLETES OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT ____________________________________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Fullerton ____________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in History ____________________________________ By Michael Dillon McCormick Thesis Committee Approval: Professor Volker Janssen, Chair Professor Allison Varzally, Department of History Professor Toby C. Rider, Department of Kinesiology Summer, 2016 ABSTRACT During the Civil Rights era of the United States, several black athletes transcended their roles as physical competitors and transitioned into the realm of social politics. Unsatisfied with their social status as mere athletic figures, these men used their cultural relevance as a platform to demand racial equality and citizenship for all African Americans. However, when they did, they were often met with significant resistance from the white power structures of America. Mainstream culture was willing to accept these men as sports stars and entertainers, but not as equal citizens. Lingering ideologies based upon social Darwinian beliefs and Jim Crow policies still plagued the nation, and prevented athletes like Jackie Robinson, Muhammad Ali, and Bill Russell from completely assimilating into American society. The result is an intersection of sport, culture, race, and politics at a critical point in the history of our nation. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................. iv Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 Jack Johnson vs. Joe Louis, A Juxtaposition of Two Opposing Character Types ................................................................................................................ 10 2. JACKIE ROBINSON, A RACIAL PIONEER .................................................... 20 Robinson as a Civil Rights Advocate ................................................................... 28 3. MUHAMMAD ALI, A SYMBOL OF BLACK RESISTANCE ......................... 37 Ali vs. the Draft .................................................................................................... 45 4. BILL RUSSELL, A DOMINANT FORCE AND INTELLECTUAL ................. 53 Six-Foot, Ten-Inch Center on the Court, Seven-Foot Negro Off of It ................. 57 5. TOMMIE SMITH, JOHN CARLOS, AND CIVIL RIGHTS ON THE INTERNATIONAL STAGE ................................................................................ 69 Repercussions and Fallout from the Olympic Salute ............................................ 74 6. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 90 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To my mom, dad, and brother, none of this could have been possible without your unconditional love and support. To the rest of my family and friends, thank you for cheering me on through this whole process, sometimes you had more faith in me than I had for myself. And a special thanks to Dr. Volker Janssen for all of your guidance and mentoring during my time as a graduate student, and especially over the past year. Thank you. iv 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION On the morning of October 18, 1968, United States Olympic runners Tommie Smith and John Carlos stood on the medal podium in Mexico City and raised their gloved fists high into the air. The now famous “Black Power Salute” was a demonstration, a symbol of black struggle and solidarity, and a staunch reminder that even though they had succeeded on the field of competition, the real struggle was taking place at home in the US where millions of African Americans were still battling racial discrimination and social inequality. But rather than being applauded for their courageous and selfless act, Smith and Carlos were instead met with severe backlash. The two Olympic medalists were immediately expelled from the Games and banned from the Olympic village. Back home, they were ostracized from the sporting community, and they and their families were targets for harsh criticism, and even death threats. As quickly as they had become American Olympic champions, Smith and Carlos were now social outcasts. White America was willing to embrace the two for their athletic endeavors, but it had clearly demonstrated it was not willing to allow the two black track stars to transition into the realm of social politics, nor recognize their voice as equals. In 1968, at the end of a decade marked by social reform and movement towards civil equality, the white social- classes and power structures of the US had proven they still preferred to have its black citizens simply seen, and not heard. This instant in American history and the aftermath 2 that followed is a sobering reminder that even after the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement, and the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, our nation still remained a racially charged and volatile place. The incident provides a direct window into the psyche of the American people during this time, and it happened through the cultural institution of sport. The intersection of sports, race, and culture during the American Civil Rights era is a fascinating space that can tell us a lot about both the nature of our society, and of our shared ideologies at the time. During the Civil Rights period, the realm of sports provided African Americans a unique opportunity to attain success and national recognition in the largely white-dominated American culture. Their achievements on the field of competition began to slowly peel back many of the racial stereotypes that had plagued American society since the Jim Crow era. When athletes like Jesse Owens succeeded against his white opponents, thought to be physically and mentally superior, it upended many of our ideas on racial hierarchy. Sports allowed black athletes the unique and particular opportunity to compete against their white counterparts, and a chance to prove their worth. But as black athletes continued to break the various racial barriers and boundaries within sports, it became evident that their athletic achievements did not fully extend beyond the field of competition. Owens single-handedly crushed Hitler’s myth of Aryan supremacy at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, and yet he had been reduced to racing horses to earn a living only a decade later.1 These men were debilitated by the distorted 1 David K. Wiggins, ed., Out of the Shadows: A Biographical History of African American Athletes (Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press, 2006), 111. 3 belief that their athletic success earned citizenship. They might have been celebrated and respected on the field, but they remained second-class citizens off of it. Knowing that their achievements within sports were not enough to completely change the discourse surrounding racial equality, many of these athletes used the fame garnered through sport as a rostrum to speak out on greater social issues. This was especially true during the Civil Rights era of postwar America, and with the athletes most prevalent during this time. Jackie Robinson wrote letters and published newspaper columns advocating for civil equality, Bill Russel co-authored Sports Illustrated articles regarding racial challenges in the US, and Muhammad Ali never shied away from speaking his mind about social injustice (when given the opportunity). And yet, when these athletes-turned-activists spoke out, they were either criticized or widely ignored. Even though their words echoed the messages and rhetoric of established social activists such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, they seemed to remain confined to their classification as physical competitors. Even today their legacies remain incomplete, as they are more often than not remembered for their athletic achievements, and not their political activism. What is left is a notable disconnect between their ambition as intellectuals and political activists, and the reality in which they were received as physical beings. Why does this disconnect exist, however? When these athletes transcended the field of competition and spoke out on greater social issues, why were their voices seldom heard or taken seriously? When we talk about the legacies of these great men, why do we tend to focus solely on their physical achievements, and not their social and political contributions? 4 As a major pillar of American culture and identity, sports entertainment can be thought of as a direct window into our collective values and beliefs as a society. During the Civil Rights era, professional athletics served as one of the nation’s most powerful community building institutions, helping to define American identity and transform the cultural landscape of the US. Sports provided the American people with more than an escape from the hardships of everyday life, it gave them a visceral connection to our nation’s lived traditions and gave minorities an active role in the formation of American culture. Because sports play such a pivotal role in the history of the US, scholars have been studying and writing about sports and their impact on our culture since