Proceedings of the Virgil Society 23 (1998) 1-21 © 1998 Chaucer and Virgil A paper given to the Virgil Society on 22 October 1994 I Go, litel book, go, litel myn tragedye, Ther God thi makere yet, er that he dye, So sende myght to make in som comedye! But litel book, no makyng thow n’envye. But subgit be to alle poesye; And kis the steppes where as thow seest pace Virgile, Ovide, Omer, Lucan, and Stace. Troilus and Criseyde V 1786-92 Literary expressions of modesty go back to antiquity and in his Envoy to Troilus and Criseyde Chaucer is doubtless imitating the classical tradi­ tion to which he defers. Yet he also speaks as a poet writing in the late fourteenth century, in England, in English and in Christendom. He sees himself as inheriting the great classical genres of tragedy and comedy but he is using the terms in a medieval, perhaps individual, way. Having written his tragedy and having some doubts about its reception, he hopes, indeed prays, to write a comedy. Perhaps he was already thinking about The Canterbury Tales. He is taking his leave of this poem and its tragic picture of human love. Its characters, whose sufferings have been so deeply felt, are, a few stanzas later, to be distanced to mere ‘payens’ whose story demonstrates ‘what alle hir goddes may avail] e’ (TC V 1850). Constancy is not to be found in any thing or person in this world but only in the Christian god, and the poem ends, like many of Chaucer’s other works, with a prayer. He expresses his admiration and humility before the great writers of antiquity. The intertextuality of his reverence is dramatized in that he is imitating the end of Statius’ Thebaid. His 1 P r isc illa M a r tin little book is not to be envious or presumptuous but to kiss the footsteps of its great predecessors and masters. One can almost visualise a mini­ ature Chaucer kneeling, like a donor in a late medieval painting, with his miniature book. This vignette has a double frame: Chaucer places himself in the contexts of classical tradition and of Christian faith. The list of names perhaps suggests another which is not there: Dante. In Canto IV of the Inferno Dante and Virgil meet in Limbo, with the souls of the unbaptized and the virtuous heathen, the poets Homer, Horace, Ovid and Lucan. They welcome Virgil and honour Dante by inviting him into their com­ pany. Chaucer is not as prone to self-congratulation as Dante: self- deprecation is more his style. But perhaps his allusion to Dante suggests a similar doubleness of attitude: reverence towards the great poets of antiquity, reservations about the great pagans. Perhaps Chaucer also associates himself with Dante in the modern project of writing in the vernacular. It was not a project which would obviously increase his audience and their understanding of his work. In the next stanza of the Envoy to Troilus he expresses anxiety about the poem’s transmission and accessibility when it goes out on its own in a language in which there is such diversity, hoping that it won’t be misread or ‘mismetred’. Perhaps its danger will be to envy not only the excellence of the great classics but also their classic status. It is ventur­ ing out into a fluid and chaotic world of discourse. They are safely enshrined in the curriculum: children are taught how to read, translate, interpret and ‘metre’ them. The resounding last line of this stanza, ‘Virgile, Ovide, Omer, Lucan, and Stace’ (though Homer was virtually inaccessible in Western Europe), constitutes a canon. Chaucer’s Latin, like that of any educated European of his time, was fairly good.1 He presumably learnt it at a grammar school which he would have attended from the age of about seven. Already it would have sounded familiar to him from liturgical use and he probably knew some prayers by heart. The nearest school, less than five minutes’ walk from the family house in Thames Street, was the Almonry School of St Paul’s Cathedral, which had, by fourteenth-century standards, a good library. In 1358, after Chaucer’s time as a schoolboy, it received a bequest of 84 books, which included texts of such standard Latin authors as Virgil, Ovid and Statius. Chaucer continued to read Latin as an adult, some­ times through the resources of anthologies, miscellanies, florilegia. He 2 C h a u c er a n d V ir gil translated several Latin works, most importantly Boethius’ Consolation o f Philosophy, also De Maria Magdalena, written in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century but attributed to Origen, and Pope Innocent Ill’s De Contemptu Mundi, which he calls ‘Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde’. However, some of his knowledge of works in Latin was via French intermediaries. He was bilingual in English and French—it was indeed a bold and innovative decision to compose most of his poems in hick insular English rather than elegant international French. In translating Boethius he worked with Jean de Meun’s French prose version, though he was evidently dissatisfied with Jean’s rendering of the metra and went back to the Latin to work on them. Jean was also the author of most of the Roman de la Rose, a major influence on many aspects of Chaucer’s work: the dream vision form, the centrality of love, the philo­ sophical and moral problems of free will and sexuality, the creative imitation and adaptation of Virgil. He knows the Metamorphoses prima­ rily through the medieval allegorised Ovide Moralise. He is inclined to give his references to the original text, even when he has used secondary sources. In the Physician’s Tale, the story of Virginia, he gives Livy as his source but he is actually using the version of Livy in the Roman de la Rose. After his visits to Italy in the 1370s, Italian poets become a major influence on his work but are not always acknowledged. The Knight’s Tale is based on Boccaccio’s Teseida but this is never mentioned; instead it parades an epigraph from Boccaccio’s source, Statius’ Thebaid. Simi­ larly, Boccaccio’s II Filostrato, the main source for Troilus and Criseyde, is not acknowledged. Chaucer continually emphasizes his dependence on his ‘auctour’, his source, particularly when he is departing from it, but he twice names this ‘auctor’ as Lollius. This otherwise unknown poet presumably materialized out of a misunderstanding of the opening line of Horace, Epistles 1.2: Troiani belli scriptorem, Maxime Lolli... Chaucer is devious with his audience in many other ways. He is disingenuous through his ingenuous narrators. He disorients us, as in a hall of mirrors, through his multiple narratives and perspectives. He is the most ironic and the most ambiguous of English poets. In Troilus and Criseyde he even seems to be experimenting with the word ‘ambiguity’, to be on the verge of introducing it into English. Criseyde tells Troilus that ‘Goddes speken in amphibologies’ (IV 1406) and she may be able to talk her father Calchas out of his belief that Troy will fall; 3 P risc illa M artin Diomede tells her that it certainly will, unless ‘Calchas lede us with ambages— I That is to seyn, with double wordes slye, I Swich as men clepen a word with two visages’ (V 897-9). Chaucer presumably found this word in Aeneid 6.29 in the description of the Cretan labyrinth and it proved a resonant image for him. [It is used of discourse at Georg. 2.46 and Aen. 1.342. Ed.] His own versions of prophecy and catabasis are ironic, his portraits of Dido and Aeneas unstable and the labyrinth—to whose complexities there may be no solution—recurs in various forms in his poetry. II Another rage Had Dydo, the quene eke of Cartage, That slough hirself for Eneas Was fals—which a fool she was. The Book of the Duchess 731-4 Chaucer’s main Virgilian interest is in Aeneid 4 and the story of Dido. Then, as now, this was one of the most popular books of the Aeneid and there are many reasons why Chaucer should be particularly drawn to it. Most obviously, his favourite subjects are love and the relationships between the sexes. He always treats these as problematic, often as potentially tragic. His poems are full of women who have been aban­ doned by men, of men and women who die or threaten to die for love, of conflicts between love and duty. His longest poem on the subject, Troilus, tells the story of a man who has been abandoned by a woman. Dido is treated rather unsympathetically on her first appearance in his poetry. The Book of the Duchess is thought to be an elegy for Blanche Duchess of Lancaster, the first wife of John of Gaunt, who died of the plague in 1368. It is a dream vision. After reading the story of Ceyx and Alcyone in Ovid, the narrator dreams that he wakes up in a room whose stained glass windows depict the story of Troy and on whose walls are painted the text and glosses of the Romance of the Rose. This decor both adumbrates the story of love and personal tragedy we are to hear and suggests the character of the dreamer-narrator as a man who sees life through books. He encounters a Man in Black who tells him about his love for a lady and his grief at her death.