View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Texas A&M Repository “WE ARE EVEN POORER, BUT THERE IS MORE WORK” AN ETHNOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF ECOTOURISM IN NICARAGUA A Dissertation by CARTER ALLAN HUNT Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY August 2009 Major Subject: Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences “WE ARE EVEN POORER, BUT THERE IS MORE WORK” AN ETHNOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF ECOTOURISM IN NICARAGUA A Dissertation by CARTER ALLAN HUNT Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Amanda Stronza Committee Members, Cynthia Werner C. Scott Shafer Thomas Lacher Head of Department, Gary Ellis August 2009 Major Subject: Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences iii ABSTRACT “We Are Even Poorer, But There Is More Work” An Ethnographic Analysis of Ecotourism in Nicaragua. (August 2009) Carter Allan Hunt, B.A. University of Kentucky; M.S., Texas A&M University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Amanda Stronza This research examines ecotourism outcomes in the context of large-scale tourism development in Nicaragua and focuses on Morgan’s Rock Hacienda and Ecolodge. Since ecotourism involves the imposition of Western constructs of nature, biodiversity, communities and conservation, our attempts to evaluate or certify ecotourism are likewise derived from these constructs. Failing to recognize the context where ecotourism occurs may lead to evaluations that place excessive emphasis on poor performance while overlooking relative successes. Initial evaluations of this ecotourism project revealed deception, exploitation, and minimal dedication to ecotourism principles; however, continuing participant observation and ethnographic interviewing among employees and residents forced re-evaluation. In relation to unchecked tourism development in the region, and given the desperate Nicaraguan socio-economic reality for most rural residents, the project must be considered a moderate success. This dissertation later invokes the dominant literature on local reactions to tourism development coming out of the field of tourism studies that uses stage-based iv models to show that increasing experience with tourism leads to increasingly negative reactions to tourism. This is contrasted with ecotourism research that has shown how increasing participation in ecotourism leads to more favorable attitudes towards ecotourism projects. This dissertation examines these two seemingly disparate perspectives in the context of an ecotourism project. Three groups representing different levels of involvement with ecotourism are compared. The results support traditional tourism theory, suggesting fruitful opportunities for integration of research on conventional forms of tourism with research specific to ecotourism. Finally, a political ecology approach is adopted to reveal mutually reinforcing cycles of capital accumulation and impoverishment leading to environmental degradation in the region resulting from tourism development in the region, as originally described in the influential book Social Causes of Environmental Destruction in Latin America. While that work focuses primarily on agricultural activities, here recent ethnographic research on ecotourism in southwestern Nicaragua is contextualized within rapid tourism development in the region and examined through a political ecological lens to reveal how tourism is responsible for the same destructive cycles revealed above. Despite achieving certain on-site success, even ecotourism contributes to, if not enables, larger processes of environmental exploitation in the Nicaraguan context. v For Eleanor vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the cooperation of Morgan’s Rock Hacienda and Ecolodge. I would like to thank the staff of Morgan’s Rock ecolodge for their remarkable hospitality and openness during my time among them. I truly enjoyed every moment spent with these employees, and wish them all the best in their present and future endeavors. In addition, Yelba Valenzuela has remained an invaluable resource to me in my work in Nicaragua. I look forward to our future collaborations. Berthalina Guilberth Woodling, María Teresa Cortedano, and Jorge Luis Cortedano have provided valuable guidance and emotional support. Many wonderful people in the department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences at Texas A&M have contributed to both this dissertation and the completion of my doctoral studies. First and foremost, I owe a huge debt to Marguerite Van Dyke, without whom I may have never entered graduate school. I also tried the patience of staff members Vivian Gonzales, Tina Vega, Ann Hsiao, Teresa Ray, and Richard Breaux. I greatly appreciate your assistance over the years. Many thanks to the outstanding faculty and graduate students of our department – your support and encouragement have been crucial to my achievements. I am also very fortunate to be advised by an outstanding group of scholars. I would like to thank Tim Wallace for assisting with my first anthropological baby-steps. Thomas Lacher has brought a wealth of field-experience and insight to my advisory committee. Thank you for the practical input. Without C. Scott Shafer I might not have stayed at Texas A&M for my Ph.D. He is an inspiration on both professional and vii personal levels. It has also been a pleasure to work with Cynthia Werner. Her teachings and encouragement have played an important role in my scholarly development. Finally, words cannot express the debt of gratitude I owe to Amanda Stronza. It is not always easy to pinpoint the crucial moments in life that profoundly influence its future direction. Little did I know at the time that Dr. Stronza’s arrival at Texas A&M would be one of those decisive moments in my life. It is difficult to imagine where my life would be without that twist of fate, and I am very fortunate to have no interest in such imaginations. In particular, thank you for the support, which has been unwavering since the first meeting, and for the example you set, which is as remarkable on a personal level as on a scholarly one. Funding for this research came from the National Science Foundation’s Cultural Anthropology Program. Stanford Caribbean Investments LLC also provided financial support during the development of this research. Lastly, I would like to thank my family. Thanks to Todd for putting up with his absentee brother. As my formal educational experience comes to an end, I am very grateful to the greatest Mom in the world for going out of her way time and time again to creatively ensure and enable my continuing development during all these years. This one’s for you mom! Finally, to my wife Luciana, thank you for bringing your cheer into my life, tolerating my moods, and helping me make more productive use of my personality traits. Te quiero! viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................... 1 Literature Review........................................................................... 2 Research Objectives ....................................................................... 9 Methodology .................................................................................. 10 Significance of the Research.......................................................... 17 Field Realities and Evolution of the Research ............................... 18 Format of the Dissertation.............................................................. 20 II RELATIVE SUCCESS AMIDST ABSOLUTE FAILURE? CRITIQUING THE CRITIQUE OF ECOTOURISM IN NICARAGUA...................................................................................... 22 Introduction .................................................................................... 22 Introducing Morgan’s Rock Hacienda and Ecolodge .................... 27 Study Methods................................................................................ 33 Looking Behind the Green Curtain ................................................ 39 Absolute Trees in a Relative Forest: Harsh Socio-economic Reality and the Tourism Context in Nicaragua.............................. 54 Morgan’s Rock Hacienda and Ecolodge Reconsidered ................. 60 Discussion ...................................................................................... 70 Conclusions .................................................................................... 73 ix CHAPTER Page III RECONCILING TOURISM AND ECOTOURISM RESEARCH ON PARTICIPATION