PARENTING AND FAMILY DIVERSITY ISSUES DIANA LANG Iowa State University Digital Press Ames, Iowa Parenting and Family Diversity Issues by Diana Lang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. You are free to copy, share, adapt, remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, as long as you follow the terms of the license. If you plan to reuse or adapt this text, please notify Dr. Lang by contacting her at [email protected]. Suggested citation: Lang, D. (2020). Parenting and family diversity issues. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Digital Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31274/isudp.8 Published by the Iowa State University Digital Press, a division of the University Library at Iowa State University. 701 Morrill Rd, Ames, IA 50011, USA E-mail: [email protected] CONTENTS About the Contributors viii Part I. Key Concepts Influences on arentinP g 4 Diana Lang and Marissa Diener Parenting Tasks: Roles, Goals, and Responsibilities 9 Diana Lang The Primary Role of Families in Promoting Children’s Development 10 Diana Lang The Primary Role of Communities in Promoting Children's and Families' Development: 13 Evidence-Based, Best-Practice Recommendations Diana Lang ACEs 15 Diana Lang Part II. Parenting Theory 1600s: Autocratic Parenting 18 Diana Lang Early 1800s: Rousseau 20 Diana Lang Late 1900s: Stanley Hall 22 Diana Lang Late 1900s: Montessori 23 Diana Lang 1920s: Watson 25 Lumen Learning, Wikimedia contributors, and Diana Lang 1930s: Vygotsky 28 Ana R. Leon, Jennifer Paris, Antoinette Ricardo, Dawn Rymond, and Diana Lang 1930s: Freud 31 Saylor Academy and Diana Lang 1940s: Spock 37 Wikimedia contributors and Diana Lang 1940s: Spitz 40 Wikimedia contributors and Diana Lang 1940s: Skinner 43 Open Stax and Diana Lang 1950s: Harlow, Bowlby, and Ainsworth 53 Lumen Learning and Diana Lang 1950s: Piaget 59 Dawn Rymond, Antoinette Ricardo, Jennifer Paris, Lumen Learning, and Diana Lang 1960s: Erikson 65 Jennifer Paris, Antoinette Ricardo, Dawn Rymond, Lumen Learning, and Diana Lang 1960s: Bandura 72 Mark Bouton and Diana Lang 1960s: Dreikurs 76 New World Encyclopedia, Wikimedia contributors, and Diana Lang 1970s: Bronfenbrenner 81 New World Encyclopedia, Wikimedia contributors, Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling, Catherine Solheim, and Diana Lang 1980s: Galinsky 87 Marissa Diener and Diana Lang Part III. Family Theories The Double ABC-X Model of Family Stress 93 Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling, Catherine Solheim, and Diana Lang Family Systems Theory 95 Diana Lang Systemic Family Development Theory 97 Diana Lang Family Development Theory 100 Diana Lang Part IV. Parenting Styles Baumrind's Parenting Styles 104 Joel A. Muraco, Wendy Ruiz, Rebecca Laff, Ross Thompson, and Diana Lang Additional Parenting Styles 110 Diana Lang Part V. Child-Rearing Strategies Child-rearing and Guidance 118 Diana Lang Active Listening 120 Diana Lang Anticipatory Structure 122 Diana Lang CALM 124 Diana Lang Constructive Choices 126 Diana Lang Four Pluses and a Wish 128 Diana Lang Grounding 131 Diana Lang I-messages 133 Diana Lang Induction 135 Diana Lang Natural and Logical Consequences 137 Diana Lang No-lose Method 139 Diana Lang Problem Ownership 141 Diana Lang Positive Language 143 Diana Lang Reward-oriented Parenting and Positive Reinforcement 145 Diana Lang Structure (with Flexibility): Routines, Rules, Directions 147 Diana Lang Taking Away Privileges 150 Diana Lang Time-ins and Time-outs 152 Diana Lang Part VI. Child-rearing in a Variety of Contexts Child Abuse, Neglect, and Foster Care 155 Diana Lang and Wikimedia contributors Adoption 160 Diana Lang Exceptionalities 164 Additional Topics that can Impact Parenting, Child-rearing, Families, and Child 175 Outcomes Part VII. Developmental Milestones Developmental Milestones and Positive Parenting Tips 179 Prenatal Development 182 Infancy and Toddlerhood 197 Suzanne Valentine-French, Martha Lally, and Diana Lang Early Childhood 220 Martha Lally, Suzanne Valentine-French, and Diana Lang Middle and Late Childhood 236 Martha Lally, Suzanne Valentine-French, and Diana Lang Adolescence 244 Martha Lally, Suzanne Valentine-French, and Diana Lang Emerging and Early Adulthood 257 Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS This open textbook is a work in progress and will be improved and expanded over time. Version 1.0 has been compiled and written by the following contributors: Author Diana L. Lang Dr. Lang is an Associate Teaching Professor at Iowa State University who teaches a variety of courses within the Department of Human Development and Family Studies. She is also a Certified Family Life Educator (CFLE) which is recognized in the U.S. and Canada for Family Life Education professions. Her areas of interest include adoption, parenting, parent-child communications, topic avoidance, individual and family development across the life span, policy, professional orientation and service learning, and human sexuality education. She is the proud parent of two adult children and is the volunteer executive director and founder of a non-profit organization that promotes adoption as a positive parenting option. If you plan to reuse or adapt this text, please notify Dr. Lang by contacting her at [email protected]. Assistants & Support Alyssa L. Hanson Alyssa, a graduate student and teaching assistant in the Human Development and Family Studies Department at Iowa State University (2018-2021) provided assistance in the editing of this book. Abbey K. Elder Abbey Elder is the Open Access & Scholarly Communication Librarian at Iowa State University who provided outstanding copyediting and production support during the development of this book. PART I KEY CONCEPTS Introduction Parenting, child-rearing, care-giving, and parenting education are key concepts that can impact child outcomes. Therefore, it is imperative to provide definitions of each concept before learning about “parenting.” I invite you to critically think about each concept and analyze how the information within this book can be applied to each of these words. Parenting is a process of raising, promoting, and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development of a child to adulthood and across the lifespan. 1 Child-rearing is oftentimes defined interchangeably with parenting. However, there are many non- parental figures (e.g., society, day care providers, teachers, governments) who offer similar types of care without being a child’s legal “parent.” 2 Care-giving is the act of assuming the main responsibilities for someone who cannot provide all basic needs for oneself. Examples might include a parent, day care provider, trained professional, or Figure 1. A family celebrating graduation. family member. 3 Parenting education is a process that can help caregivers (and prospective caregivers) understand how to provide developmentally-appropriate care in a safe, loving, nurturing, and stable environment that contributes to a child’s positive health and well-being. Successful parenting education provides participants with individualized, culturally-relevant knowledge, resources, strategies, tools, networking support, and guidance regarding best-practice approaches to child- rearing. The goals of parenting education include caregivers learning and implementing this 1. Brooks, J. B. (2012). The process of parenting: Ninth edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 2. Abrahan, H. (2017). A family is what you make it? Legal recognition and regulation of multiple parents. American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 25(4) https://ssrn.com/abstract=2925886 3. US Legal. (n.d.). Primary-caregiver doctrine law and legal definition. Retrieved from https://definitions.uslegal.com/p/primary- caregiver-doctrine/ 2 | KEY CONCEPTS information to facilitate a child’s long-term, positive, emotional, social, physical, and cognitive development. 4 Research continually shows that parenting practices can influence a child’s social, emotional, and intellectual development, especially during the early years.5 Studies also demonstrate that parenting practices can impact a child’s behavioral health, ability to focus (attention), and enhanced sense of security. 6 Further, parenting processes and outcomes can be influenced by factors such as personality, biology, temperament, and the unique experiences of a parent and a child. Therefore, these processes should be examined within the contexts of social, economic, historical, and psychological factors related to individuals, families, communities, and cultures. 7 Across the world, a variety of definitions exist for many topics concerning “parenting” and “family.” For instance, the European Court of Human Rights jurisprudence recommends that “family” be defined on culturally-sensitive and case-by-case bases by giving consideration to the personal ties between the persons concerned.8 Further, it is fairly-well agreed upon that those who work with children and families embrace, respect, and understand that subjective definitions of these concepts (a) exist within and between individuals, cultures, and organizations (e.g., UNICEF, U.S. Census Bureau, etc.), (b) can change over time, and (c) are based on personal experiences, views, values, beliefs, historical time and place, culture, etc.9 Throughout this entire book, it should be assumed that the following terms are defined as follows: Parent: The words, “family member,” “primary caregiver,” and/or “parent” will be used interchangeably