B T Th Ind n �ia- I ·1pua l order an I t P L ua Nati nali �111 .. J. d.) BETWEEN TWO NATIONS The Indonesia - Papua New Guinea border and West Papua Nationalism R. J. May (Ed.) CONTRIBUTORS H. Arndt. Emeritus professor, National Centre for Development Studies, Research School of PacificStudies , Australian National Uni­ versity. Peter Hastings. Associate editor, Sydney Morning Herald. J.M. Herlihy. Research officer. Commonwealth Ombudsman's Office, Canberra. Kevin Hewison. Post-doctoral fellow. Department of Political and Social Change, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. J.A.C. Mackie. Professor and head, Department of Political and Social Change, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. R.J. May. Senior fellow. Department of Political and Social Change, Research School of PacificStudies, Australian National University. Robin Osborne. Journalist, Sydney. J.R.V. Prescott. Reader, Department of Geography, University of Melbourne. Alan Smith. Formerly senior tutor, Department of Extension Studies, University of Papua New Guinea. June Verrier. Department of Foreign Affairs, Canberra. CONTENTS Preface Contributors 1. Problems of International Boundaries with Particular Reference 1 to the Boundary Between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. J. R. V. Prescott 2. The Origins of the Border Problem and the Border Story to 1969. 18 June Verrier 3. OPM and the Quest for West Papua Unity. Robin Osborne 49 4. Doea Indonesia have Expansionist Designs on Papua New 65 Guinea? J. A. C. Mackie 5. East of the Border: Irian Jaya and the Border in Papua New 85 Guinea's Domestic and Foreign Politics, R. J. May 6. Transmigration in Irian Jaya. H. Arndt 161 7. Border Development: a 'Political Necessity' Again. J. M. Her- 175 lihy 8. 1984: Refugees, 'Holiday Camps' and Deaths. Alan Smith and 200 Kevin Hewison 9. Prospects: A State of Mind. Peter Hastings. 218 Postscript 233 Appendix 238 References 247 Index 254 BElWEEN TWO NATI ONS PREFACE n 1969, in an event referred to by Indonesia as the 'Act of Free Choice' (Perpera) , but by some others as an 'act free of choice', I1,022 delegates appointed by the Indonesian administration to repre­ sent the people of Irian Jaya voted to become formally part of the Indonesian Republic. Although officialand unofficial observers were critical of the manner in which the United Nations' Temporary Execu­ tive Authority was brought to an end, few outside Irian Jaya itself seri­ ously contested the outcome of the act. Within Irian Jaya, however, some Melanesian nationalists actively resisted the authority of the Indonesian government, while others 'voted with their feet' by cros­ sing into Papua New Guinea. On the other side of the border, Papua New Guinea progressed to independence in 1975, and though leading Papua New Guinean politi­ cians often expressed sympathy for the position of their Melanesian neighbours, successive Papua New Guinea governments maintained the broad policies of the i::olonial government, seeking to discourage border crossing while dealing sympathetically with 'genuine refugees', and giving high priority to the establishment and maintenance of good relations with Indonesia. Between 1975 and 1984 refugees continued to trickle across the border into Papua New Guinea and a number of border incidents pre­ cipitated recurring short cycles of tension and self-conscious cordiality between Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. Nevertheless a basic bor­ der agreement , negotiated on Papua New Guinea's behalf by the colo­ nial government in 1973, was successfully renegotiated in 1979 and 1984, official visits were exchanged, joint border development plans were discussed, and machinery was established to deal with the prob­ lems of border administration. Despite the recurring problems along the border it appeared that both governments were anxious to prom­ ote good relations between their countries . In 1984 the border situation deteriorated markedly. Following an attempted local uprising by West Papuan nationalists in early 1984, and subsequent repressive action by Indonesian military authorities, a flood of refugees began to pour across the border into Papua New Guinea and a series of border violations by Indonesian troops and air­ craft created new tensions between the two countries which the machinery set up under the border agreement proved inadequate to cope with. By mid 1985 there were about 12,000 border crossers in camps along the border in Papua New Guinea, few of whom showed BETWEEN TWO NATIONS any inclination to cross back, and repatriation - and broader questions of Papua New Guinea's attitudes to the circumstances which had given rise to this influx- had become salient in Papua New Guinea's domestic politics and a subject of some concern internationally. In 1979 a group of interested observers met in Canberra to discuss recent developments on the border. The results of this discussion were published in that year as Working Paper No. 2 of the Department of Political and Social Change , Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University (May 1979b) . In late 1983 an update of this volume was commenced, but the exercise was overtaken by events. Instead, the present volume has emerged as a substantial reexamination of the border situation and Papua New Guinea­ Indonesia relations over the border. Chapters by Prescott, Mackie, May and Herlihy present material included in the 1979 volume updated to take account of developments since 1979. Verrier presents an account of developments to 1969 which was lacking in the earlier volume. New contributions by Osborne, Arndt, and Smith and Hewi­ son look respectively at the OPM, transmigration, and border cros­ sers. Hastings, who contributed an introductory chapter in 1979, pro­ vides a concluding overview. Those who have followed discussion on this subject over recent years will appreciate that this publication brings together contributors of quite widely diverse attitudes and opinions. Editorially I have tried to ensure that the historical and factual content of the volume is consis­ tent, and to avoid excessive overlap between chapters. But no attempt has been made to suppress the diversity of attitudes and sympathies among the contributors. It is for readers to arrive at their own judge­ ments. In putting the volume together I am heavily indebted to Claire Smith and Hilary Bek for their customary excellence as typists, proof­ readers and occasional sub-editors, and to Jo Costin for her assistance in the final preparationof the manuscript and index. Photographs were kindly made available by The Times of Papua New Guinea, through Rowan Callick, South Pacific Post Pty Ltd (Post-Courier) , Sydney Morning Herald, through Peter Hastings, Niugini Nius, Mark Baker, Hank di Suvero and Robin Osborne. Except for those supplied by Vic­ tor Prescott (1. 1-1.3), all maps were drawn by Keith Mitchell, cartog­ rapher with the Australian National University's Department of Human Geography. The title of the volume was largely the inspiration of Beverley Blaskett. 140° 141°, 142° 143° I Jayapura Wutung Holtekange : Vanimo KILIMERI • Bewani Arso I • • Skotiau A1tape Warise I "' I • <:::,, lmonda SANDAUN D Ja11. I ,,..._._ (West Sepik) / --.,_j • Wewak I Amanab r Kamberatoro i I I ,-·-·-·. __J 0 0 I I 4 4 ;_ _Jk I SeP' I ! Yaps1e1 L._.__ --· --. I A . • Frieda I prospect , I�Atbalm1n I r--·�T1falm1n prospects . d. ·-. � I . ...._ . Telefomin I �\, Ok T e 1 m1ne..i. • PAPUA • �-..... ..., } Tabubil �<- .'.::;apm1n INDONESIA · NEW I ., Warokpo . I . e • • ......_ lngemb1te N1ngerum;J\ GUINEA 1 Kungim ·'-.. Mind1ptanah• 1 1. 6' 6' I • I T anahmerah I I i WESTERN i i --1 l I " I ., " I ., I " I " ., I ' I Kwan I • I I I Merauke I I Morehead• 0 50 _ - � - �10�0 1so I � -- :.,..., ..,..- :__ _.:.,. I kilometres - - - 140° - 1430 FIGURE 1 The border area VI 11 CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 1 PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN INDONESIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA J.R.V. Prescott The relations between modern states reach their most critical stage in the fo rm of problems relating to territory (Hill 1976 :3). Th ere are no problems of boundaries. There are only prob­ lems of Nations (Ancel 1938:196). hese two quotations emphasize the importance of boundary ques­ tions and the fact that they are one part of the totality of states' Trelationships. It would be equally true to say that there is no boundary disagreement which could not be readily solved given goodwill on both sides, and that there is no boundary which would not furnish a cause of dispute if one country wished to force a quarrel on another. This essay is divided into three main sections. First, a short intro­ ductory passage identifies the principal types of boundary disputes. Secondly, each of these categories is examined in detail, and their occurrence in the borderland between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea is considered. Thirdly, the conclusions of the second section are listed. Throughout this essay the terms boundary and border are used in their precise senses. A boundary is a line and a border is a zone in which a boundary is located. It would be possible to define thewidth of the border according to a number of diffe rent criteria; if a particular border was defined by an economist, an anthropologist, a geomor­ phologist and a general , it would be surprising if all the limits selected coincided. BElWEENTWO NATIONS The principal types of boundary disputes The general term boundary dispute includes four distinct kinds of disagreements between countries. Territorial boundary disputes occur when one country findspart of the territory of an adjoining state attrac­ tive and seeks to acquire it. Somalia's claim to the Haud and Ogaden areas of Ethiopia and Guatemala's claim to Belize provide examples of such disputes. Positional boundary disputes occur when there is a dis­ agreement over the exact location of the boundary, probably because of a controversy over the interpretation of a phrase in a treaty or over the correct intention of parts of previous agreements.