Reefs of Life to Reefs of Death: The Political Ecology of Coral Reef Health by Tegan Churcher Hoffmann B.S. (University of California at Berkeley) 1994 M.A. (University of California at Berkeley) 1998 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography in the GRADUATE DIVISION of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY Committee in Charge: Professor Michael Watts, Chair Professor David Stoddart Professor Jere Lipps Fall 2001 i Reefs of Life to Reefs of Death: The Political Ecology of Coral Reef Health Copyright 2001 by Tegan Churcher Hoffmann ii Abstract Reefs of Life to Reefs of Death: The Political Ecology of Coral Reef Health by Tegan Churcher Hoffmann Doctor of Philosophy in Geography University of California, Berkeley Professor Michael Watts, Chair This research focuses on the South Pacific region, an area of high global coral diversity. I examine reef health surrounding two islands in Fiji, Vatulele and Ovalau, and two Cook Islands, Aitutaki and Rarotonga. Each island has distinct differences based not only on reef type, environment, and ecology, but also upon social institutions. I will compare four islands with barrier and fringing reefs that have different levels of economic development, population pressure, land-use practices, and marine management practices. This research will assess coral health in areas that have not been previously surveyed. This interdisciplinary research methodology includes both ecological and social data collection to further understanding of human environment interactions. I do this by identifying and describing the presence of certain social institutions and some historical reasons as to why they exist. I then assess the impact they probably are having on the reef, and finally I present data on the ecological condition correlated with certain social institutions. In comparing the reefs with these social conditions and institutions, I argue that certain institutions have greater or lesser impact upon coral reef health based upon iii correlation. Correlative research is useful to point out areas of future research, and to provide data to make estimates as to the level of causality, which could in turn be information used for policy making and activism. Through the examination of four island case studies I will argue that: 1. The commodification of the reef and reef resources is one of the primary factors causing the decline of coral reef health. 2. The loss of traditional marine social institutions has affected coral reef health. Specifically, the transformation of common property resources from communally owned property to state owned with open access status has primarily influenced ecological change on the reef. 3. The implementation of traditional marine social institutions as exemplified in a case study in Rarotonga, Cook Islands is improving coral reef health. 4. The image of the South Pacific as having “healthy” reefs shapes and forms policy and practices of global, regional, and local institutions and organizations. iv Acknowledgements The United States Environmental Protection Agency Star Fellow # U915636 and the University of California Pacific Rim Research Program provided financial support to conduct this research. My intellectual support is indebted to my advisors Jere Lipps, Bernard Nietschmann, David Stoddart, and Michael Watts. Michael, David, and Jere took me under their wings during difficult circumstances when Barney passed away, and because of their guidance this research and dissertation came to life once again. My friends and colleagues, Douglas Allen, Dana Benson, Lea Borkenhagen, Martha Forman-Lopez, Helen Fox, Jim Hayward, Brendan Roark, Jonathon Stock, Jessica Teisch, Peter Weber, and Wendy Wolford, constantly debated, edited, and discussed with me ideas and issues involving all aspects of this dissertation research. They provided advice and emotional support through this process. The geography department staff, Don Bain, Delores Dillard, Darin Jensen, Carol Page, Dan Plumlee and Nat Vonnegut, worked with me on all aspects of my research and the production of this final product. They helped with my budgets, scanning slides, making maps, equipment and administrative tasks. Thank you for your wonderful assistance and warm smiles. I would like to thank Lisa Wedding for her fabulous field assistance. I could not have collected all of these data without her. She was dedicated and a wonderful travel companion in the South Seas. I would also like to thank all of my collaborators in the Cook Islands and Fiji and in particular Noby Dehm of Ovalau Dive, Patrick Nunn of the v University of the South Pacific, Martin Livingston and Mark Kitchen of Vatulele Island Resort, and Ben Ponia of Cooks Islands Ministry of Marine Resources for their generous donation of time and support. Finally, I would like to thank my family. Without the love and support of Pascal, Kendra, Mom and Dad I would have given up long ago. Thank you for letting me and helping me fulfill my dreams. vi Table of Contents List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………..x List of Graphs…………………………………………………………………………….xi List of Maps……………………………………………………………………………...xii List of Pictures…………………………………………………………………………..xiv List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….xv Chapter 1: Introduction: The Political Ecology of Coral Reef Health……………...1 The Political Ecology of Coral Reef Health: The Approach and Theoretical Framework 1 Political Ecology............................................................................................................. 3 Coral Reefs in the Pacific: Are They at Risk? ............................................................... 9 Reefs at Risk and the Status of Coral Reefs of the World ........................................ 10 The Scientific Debates .................................................................................................. 18 Island Study Sites and Selection................................................................................... 24 The Cook Islands ...................................................................................................... 27 Aitutaki.................................................................................................................. 27 Rarotonga .............................................................................................................. 29 Fiji............................................................................................................................. 30 Ovalau................................................................................................................... 30 Vatulele ................................................................................................................. 32 Determining Coral Health............................................................................................. 33 Methods......................................................................................................................... 37 Significance of Research........................................................................................... 37 Environmental History.............................................................................................. 38 vii Socio-Economic Data Collection.............................................................................. 39 Field Surveys............................................................................................................. 39 Qualitative Field Data Collection............................................................................. 43 Quantitative Field Data Collection........................................................................... 44 Statistical Analysis.................................................................................................... 49 Organization of Dissertation......................................................................................... 49 Chapter 2: The Colonial Transformation of Islands: Development, Property, and Environmental Change in the Cook Islands and Fiji from the 1800s to the Present 51 Reef and Coastal Environmental Change and Development in the South Pacific ....... 52 Commodification of Nature .......................................................................................... 53 Capitalism and Colonialism in The Cook Islands and Fiji........................................... 56 The Cook Islands ...................................................................................................... 56 Fiji............................................................................................................................. 61 The Laws of the Land..and Sea: The Introduction and History of Western Property Laws in the Cook Islands and Fiji................................................................................. 64 The Cook Islands ...................................................................................................... 64 Fiji............................................................................................................................. 68 The Commodification of Nature and the Loss of Customary Tenure Systems and Management Regimes ....................................................................................................................................... 74 An Island Tragedy? ....................................................................................................... 77 Chapter 3: Commodification