energies Article Potential of Russian Regions to Implement CO2-Enhanced Oil Recovery Alexey Cherepovitsyn 1, Sergey Fedoseev 2, Pavel Tcvetkov 3,* ID , Ksenia Sidorova 1 and Andrzej Kraslawski 4,5 1 Organization and Management Department, Saint-Petersburg Mining University, 21 Line, 2, St. Petersburg 199106, Russia; [email protected] (A.C.); [email protected] (K.S.) 2 Kola Science Centre of the RAS, Fersman st., 24a, Apatite 184209, Russia; [email protected] 3 Department of Informatics and Computer Technologies, Saint-Petersburg Mining University, 21 Line, 2, St. Petersburg 199106, Russia 4 School of Business and Management, Lappeenranta University of Technology, P.O. Box 20, FI-53851 Lappeenranta, Finland; Andrzej.Kraslawski@lut.fi 5 Faculty of Process and Environmental Engineering, Lodz University of Technology, ul. Wolczanska 213, 90-924 Lodz, Poland * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +7-(950)-001-4442 Received: 17 April 2018; Accepted: 10 June 2018; Published: 12 June 2018 Abstract: The paper assesses the techno-economic potential of Russia to implement carbon capture and storage technologies that imply the capture of anthropogenic CO2 and its injection into geologic reservoirs for long-term storage. The focus is on CO2 enhanced oil recovery projects that seem to be the most economically promising option of carbon capture and storage. The novelty of the work lies in the formulation of a potential assessment method of CO2 enhanced oil recovery, which allows for establishing a connection between energy production and oil extraction from the viewpoint of CO2 supply and demand. Using linear optimization, the most promising combinations of CO2 sources and sinks are identified and an economic evaluation of these projects is carried out. Based on this information, regions of Russia are ranked according to their prospects in regards to CO2 capture and enhanced oil recovery storage. The results indicate that Russia has a significant potential to utilize its power plants as CO2 sources for enhanced oil recovery projects. It has been estimated that 71 coal-fired power plants, and 185 of the gas-fired power plants of Russia annually produce 297.1 and 309.6 Mt of CO2 that can cover 553.4 Mt of the demand of 322 Russian oil fields. At the same time, the total CO2 storage capacity of the Russian fields is estimated at 7382.6 Mt, however, due to geological and technical factors, only 22.6% can be used for CO2-EOR projects. Of the 183 potential projects identified in the regional analysis phase, 99 were found to be cost-effective, with an average unit cost of € 19.07 per ton of CO2 and a payback period of 8.71 years. The most promising of the estimated regions is characterized by a well-developed energy industry, relatively low transportation costs, numerous large and medium-sized oil fields at the final stages of development, and favorable geological conditions that minimize the cost of injection. Geographically, they are located in the North-Western, Volga, and Ural Federal districts. Keywords: CO2 injection; enhanced oil recovery; project economics; transportation; regions of Russia; potential assessment 1. Introduction The average efficiency of oil recovery in Russia, by different estimates, ranges between 27 and 34%, and thus 65–70% of Russian oil remains untapped in the reservoir [1]. By way of a comparison, Energies 2018, 11, 1528; doi:10.3390/en11061528 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2018, 11, 1528 2 of 22 theEnergies global 2018 average, 11, x FOR recovery PEER REVIEW efficiency is 30–35% [2], and in the USA recovery efficiency has reached2 of 22 40%—with a far less favorable structure of reserves (Figure1). To a great extent, the high US oil recovery factorfactor cancan bebe explainedexplained byby governmentalgovernmental programsprograms to enhanceenhance oiloil extractionextraction throughthrough thethe development of modern enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technologies [3], [3], supported at the state level; e.g., through taxationtaxation subsidiessubsidies [[4].4]. One especially especially significant significant method method of EOR of EOR for the for Ru thessian Russian oil industry oil industry is miscible is miscibleflooding (injection flooding (injectionof CO2 or ofcarbonized CO2 or carbonized water, natural water, gas, natural and nitrogen gas, and) because nitrogen) the becausemajority theof the majority oil remaining of the oilin remainingplace in the in depleted place in thefields depleted is in the fields form is of in theflooded form residual of flooded reserves. residual With reserves. high sweep With high efficiency, sweep efficiency,residual oil residual saturation oil saturationof a reserv ofoir a can reservoir be as low can as be 2–5% as low [5]. as 2–5% [5]. Although the US was the leaderleader inin COCO22-EOR during the late 20th century, thethe USSRUSSR alsoalso possessedpossessed experience in CO 22-EOR-EOR [6]. [6]. The The assessment assessment of of CO CO2-EOR2-EOR prospects prospects for for several several deposits deposits in inBashkortostan, Bashkortostan, Tatarstan Tatarstan and and the the Samara Samara oblast oblast pi pilot-scalelot-scale operations operations in in the the Tuymazy Tuymazy were quitequite positive—itpositive—it waswas found that CO22 floodingflooding could increase recovery efficiency efficiency by 13–15%; however, for financialfinancial reasons,reasons, thethe projectsprojects werewere discontinueddiscontinued [[7].7]. Figure 1. Comparison of oil recovery efficiencyefficiency inin USAUSA andand RussiaRussia [[8].8]. Compared to the US, thethe applicationapplication of modernmodern EOR methodsmethods in Russia is onlyonly atat thethe initialinitial stages of development,development, which is partlypartly duedue toto thethe technicaltechnical andand socio-economicsocio-economic developmentdevelopment of thethe post-Sovietpost-Soviet oiloil industry, andand partlypartly becausebecause ofof current negative trends in the oil market [9]. [9]. However, However, takingtaking into account the importance of the oil sector for the economyeconomy of Russia,Russia, the promotion of newnew EOR methods, including economic incentives,incentives, must become a strategic goal of of the the national national oil oil industry. industry. One of thethe modernmodern threatsthreats toto thethe long-termlong-term developmentdevelopment of thethe RussianRussian oil industryindustry is thethe depletion ofof easily easily recoverable recoverable oil reserves.oil reserves. The onlyThe wayonly to way maintain to maintain the current the level current of oil level production of oil (525–530production million (525–530 tons permillion year) tons is the per development year) is the of development hard-to-recover of oilhard-to-recover resources, including oil resources, marine ones,including since marine the oil ones, reserves since in the oil fields reserves currently in the being fields developed currently are being exhausted developed bymore are exhausted than 65% by in themore European than 65% part in andthe European by more than part 70% and inby the more Ural than and 70% the Volgain the regions. Ural and In the General, Volga the regions. average In rateGeneral, of depletion the average of large rate Russian of depletion deposits of large is close Russ to 60%.ian deposits 77% of theis close current to level60%. of77% oil of production the current is providedlevel of oil by production the development is provided of large by fields, the anddevelo thepment reserves of willlarge last fields, another and 8–12 the years. reserves As thewill share last ofanother hard-to-recover 8–12 years. reserves As the share increases, of hard-to-recover more deposits withreserves heavy increases, oils, low-permeability more deposits with rocks, heavy and huge oils, under-gas-caplow-permeability zones rocks, are and being huge brought under-gas-cap into production; zones are the being need tobrought improve into the production; existing methods the need of developingto improve the these existing depleted methods fields isof evident.developing these depleted fields is evident. Existing research articlesarticles devoteddevoted toto Carbon CaptureCapture andand StorageStorage (CCS)(CCS) cancan be divided into four principalprincipal areas.areas. Firstly,Firstly, the the development development and and improvement improvement of CCSof CCS technologies, technologies, which which includes includes a risk a assessmentrisk assessment of present of present and future and future technologies technologies [10]. A [10]. promising A promising direction direction is the production is the production of methane of methane and geothermal energy from geopressured-geothermal aquifers using CO2, which could offset the energy cost of CCS [11]. An alternative is the use of captured CO2 for the production of various products, such as methanol. However, these technologies are not yet profitable [12]. Also of interest are articles on the potential of carbonated water injection to increase oil recovery [13]. Such Energies 2018, 11, 1528 3 of 22 and geothermal energy from geopressured-geothermal aquifers using CO2, which could offset the energy cost of CCS [11]. An alternative is the use of captured CO2 for the production of various products, such as methanol. However, these technologies are not yet profitable [12]. Also of interest are articles on the potential of carbonated water injection to increase oil recovery [13]. Such studies are the main driver for CCS development and the enhancement of its competitiveness, due to the low