Subtle Semblances of Sorrow: Exploring Music, Emotional Theory, and Methodology Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Lindsay Alison Warrenburg, M.A. Graduate Program in Music The Ohio State University 2019 Dissertation Committee: Daniel Shanahan, Advisor David Huron Anna Gawboy Dónal O’Mathúna Copyright by Lindsay Alison Warrenburg 2019 2 Abstract Music, perhaps more than any other art form, is able to influence moods and affect behavior. There are limitless accounts of music eliciting feelings of nostalgia, transcendence, and other seemingly ineffable emotions. In the scientific study of music and emotion, however, only five music-induced emotions have been studied in depth: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and tenderness (Juslin, 2013). Although these emotions are certainly important and can be expressed and elicited through music listening, a pertinent question becomes the following: do these five words accurately capture all affective states related to music? Throughout my dissertation, I argue that in order to better understand emotional responses to musical stimuli, we need to change the way we use emotional terminology and examine emotional behaviors. In the first part of the dissertation (Chapters 1-4), I review how emotional music has been theoretically characterized and which excerpts have been utilized in research. I will show that the field of music and emotion is fraught with conceptual difficulties and that passages of music expressing a single emotion (e.g., sadness) span an unmanageably large area of emotional space. The second part of the dissertation (Chapters 5-8) provides an in-depth analysis of music that has been classified by other researchers as sad. I will show that previous research has conflated at least two separable emotional states under the umbrella term sadness: melancholy and grief. Through a series of behavioral ii experiments, I argue that melancholic and grief-like music utilize different kinds of music-theoretic structures, are perceived as separate emotional states, and result in different feeling states. In the last part of the dissertation (Chapters 9-11), I offer two possible interpretations of the research findings, drawing first from the field of ethology to show that melancholy and grief could be separable emotion states that have different biological functions and vocal characterizations (e.g., Huron, 2015). Then, I advocate for the adoption of a psychological phenomenon called emotional granularity (e.g., Barrett, 2004). Emotional granularity refers to the specificity with which a person labels their emotional states, and is both an individual characteristic and a learnable skill. The dissertation concludes with ideas for future research, including the investigation of how the musical structure may result in subtle shades of emotion previously unrecognized in the music psychology literature. iii Acknowledgements Those who know me best are familiar with the story of how I became interested in music research. When I was in college, I attended a performance of Bach’s St. Matthew Passion by the Philadelphia Orchestra. Although I had never heard the work before, when the bass soloist began to sing “Mache dich, mein Herze, rein” in the second act, tears immediately came to my eyes and I felt a sense of total tranquility. After the concert concluded, I conversed with fellow concert-goers and we all shared the sentiment that everyone in the audience became friends simply because we had all experienced the masterwork together. Intrigued, I began to question my family and friends about whether they had experienced a similar phenomenon from listening to music. Most—if not all— said yes. Between these conversations and my flow experiences conducting research on Mahler, I felt like I had to understand why (and how) music can lead to strong and emotional experiences. The truly amazing part of the story involves the reactions from those close to me when I relayed the fact that after eight years of intensive physical science training and medical school preparation, I was going to enter a graduate program centered on music theory. In response, I only received positive feedback, hugs, and supportive smiles. Anyone who has attended graduate school can attest to the fact that it is a journey. Committing yourself to an academic program for a large portion of your twenties means iv that you will not only learn about your chosen area of study, but you will also discover who you are as a person. Accompanying me on this journey were the most wonderful people, whom it would be impossible to thank adequately in words. To these people, please know how grateful I am to have you in my life and how fortunate I feel to have you to keep me going through all the highs and lows of this period. My first thanks, of course, goes to those who have mentored me throughout the years. Particular shout-outs go to Diane Dollak, for teaching me piano performance, aural skills, and music theory over many years, Andrew Hayes, for instilling in me a love of statistics and behavioral research methods, Amelia Aldao, for introducing me to the science of emotion, David Clampitt, for his enthusiasm in all aspects related to the history of music theory, and Baldwin Way, for his willingness to take me on as a graduate student, even though I was based in a different department. Thank you also to Anna Gawboy and Johanna Devaney, who have been incredible sources of academic and personal support, and who motivate me every day with their strength and compassion. Special thanks goes to Lawrence Bernstein, who is one of the most brilliant and eloquent scholars I know, and is certainly the one with the most gracious spirit. You were the person that encouraged me to foster my love of music and to turn it into a professional career. Your classes still remain the most pivotal experiences in my academic life and certainly changed the way I view the world. To Daniel Shanahan, you have continually made me feel academically inspired and proud of my work and of myself. Your patience, generosity, and vision have made this last year of graduate school the best it could possibly be. I owe you so much and am excited to see how you continue to lead students to their maximum potential. Finally, to David Huron, thank you for v believing in me and for guiding the way I think about music and about the world. I have never met anyone with a more curious spirit or with a more jovial attitude. It has been one of the greatest pleasures of my life to see how you take an intuition and develop it into a fully-formed and realizable theory (the pleasurable-compassion theory) over a period of five years. Like many others before me, I am forever indebted to you for your expertise as a mentor. Thank you to my Allied friends, Penn friends, Monell family, and my colleagues in the Cognitive and Systematic Musicology Lab. It has been a pleasure to learn alongside you and each person has contributed to my development as a scholar. Among many others, I would like to express gratitude for Nataliya Nedzhvetskaya, Amanda Howson, Nitasha Khanna, Chandni Bardolia, Sindhoori Nalla, John Thiel, Rachel Mathisen Fink, Megan Coffin, Elaine Fitz Gibbon, Yunica Jiang, Baker Beers, Davis Butner, Zhenyu Zhao, Joel Mainland, Casey Trimmer, Wendy Yu, Deborah Lee, Nick Shea, David Orvek, Andrew Brinkman, and Hubert Léveillé Gauvin. Special thanks to Amalya Lehmann for keeping me grounded and for being an incredible friend through thick and thin. To my twin-of-mind, Lindsey Snyder, you have opened your heart and home to me more times than I can count. Each time, you have made me feel at peace and like I am loved. Lissa Reed, you have given me the strength and courage to be authentically myself, for which I can never thank you enough. Lindsey Reymore, you have proven to be one of the most important people in my life. In addition to your incredible dedication and intellect, you encourage me to be better, in every sense of the word. Finally, to Caitlyn Trevor, with whom I started this journey half a decade ago. Your light, fire, and ability to make me smile no matter what has meant the world to vi me. I couldn’t imagine going through grad school without you by my side to keep me motivated, inspired, and happy. One of my favorite quotes is by Charles Dickens, who says in Doctor Marigold, “No one is useless in this world who lightens the burden of another.” Amalya, both Lindseys, Lissa, and Caitlyn, you lighten my burden every day and make life filled with joy. Thank you. I am blessed to have the most wonderful family imaginable. Throughout my entire life, each one of you has been an endless source of support and reassurance. To Terrill, my best friend, I never feel complete until you are with me. I know I am never alone, because you will fight for me no matter what—a sentiment that I reciprocate. It has been the greatest joy of my life to see you grow into such a beautiful woman, inside and out. Mom, you have the most caring and loving soul of anyone in the world. Your heart of gold has inspired me to always try to do the right thing, to show compassion for others, and to treat myself with love and respect. Dad, I couldn’t imagine being able to complete this degree without you. In addition to all of the academic and moral support you’ve provided over the years, you have shown me by example what it means to lift others up, how to experience joy from learning, and how to protect and advocate for those you love.