FEMALE SLAVE PORTRAYALS IN CHILD AND YOUNG ADULT HISTORICAL FICTION BY AFRICAN AMERICAN AUTHORS BY NGOZI ONUORA DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Curriculum and Instruction in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor Violet J. Harris, Chair Professor Arlette I. Willis Associate Professor Karla J. Möller Professor James D. Anderson Abstract This study explored several works of historical fiction focused on slavery in the United States written by African- Americans for middle-level children. This exploration juxtaposed portrayals of female slaves developed by African-American female authors with portrayals created by African-American male authors. Historical fiction for children and young adults was collected and analyzed using literary criticism and literary theory that is interpretive in nature. Several key themes of the literature were identified as critical to understanding the slave experiences of black women in the United States. A combination of critical race theory and critical black feminism served as the theoretical lenses from which the portrayals were critiqued. The research suggested the importance of understanding the historical contributions of black girls and women to our country during the ante- and post-bellum eras. The use of historical fiction to supplement the social studies and American history curricula for middle grade youth was recommended. Keywords: slavery, chattel slavery, U.S. slavery, female slaves, slave portrayals, children’s literature, young adult literature, historical fiction, African-American authors, critical race theory, critical black feminism, black feminist ii criticism, middle-level students, middle-grade students, literary analysis, literary criticism, textual analysis iii To my Mama, for all you are iv Acknowledgements For anyone who knows me, it goes without saying that I give thanks to God for the lessons He has taught me on this journey toward earning a doctorate degree. Many times I wanted to give up, but because of Him, I persevered. God granted me the strength and patience to endure; and, He placed people in my path to help me, boost my spirits through challenges, and motivate me when I felt stressed, strained, or overwhelmed. Some of those people are appreciated in these acknowledgements; others subtly made their impact and have been personally thanked on numerous occasions. Through my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, all things are possible. I am grateful for His almighty power and divine intervention in bringing me together with the women and men who have positively impacted me during my tenure as a graduate student in the Curriculum and Instruction department at the University of Illinois. First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Violet J. Harris, my academic advisor and dissertation chair, for her willingness to work with me at every stage of the writing process and for continued support throughout my time in the Language and Literacy Division. She has gone above and beyond in mentoring me through the writing of this dissertation. She is truly a remarkable woman, and I am honored to have been under her tutelage. v I would also like to thank Dr. Arlette I. Willis, who is a class act. I have learned so much from her, and she helped me more than she will ever know at a critical time in my life when I was enrolled in doctorate coursework. She sharpened my critical reading and critical thinking skills, and for that I am ever grateful. I am “lucky” to have had Dr. Karla J. Möller as a professor. Her love of children’s literature is infectious, and the constant encouragement along with her belief in my abilities has been invaluable. I thank her for challenging me academically as a student while simultaneously treating me as a professional and as a personal friend. I am in awe of Dr. James D. Anderson and his depth of expertise about a vast array of topics. It is particularly amazing to hear him talk about history. I am grateful that he was interested in serving on my committee. I am grateful to former Millikin University President Doug Zemke, former Vice President Barry Pearson, former College of Professional Studies (CPS) Dean Kathy Booker, the current CPS Dean Deborah Slayton, the School of Education chair, Dr. Nancy Gaylen, and the close-knit faculty colleagues that I have worked with throughout the past decade. They have all been cheerleaders for me to “get ‘er done.” They have provided the kind of moral support that shows they value me as a colleague and friend. I vi appreciate their unwavering belief in me over the years I have been working to complete my doctorate degree while teaching at Millikin. Thank goodness for understanding friends who are always supportive of my endeavors! The past few years have meant so much to me knowing that my personal circle of friends have been praying and interceding on my behalf. They have been interested in my work and understanding of my professional and academic schedule. I am appreciative of such a strong network of people who care so much about me. Finally, and most of all, I would like to thank my mother, who is and has always been my rock and a solid foundation for my entire life. She has provided unending encouragement and confidence in me. Without her saintly patience, unfailing love, and wholehearted dedication to my success, none of my pursuits would be possible. My mom is an angel provided to me by God, and I have been richly blessed by her. She is my best friend, and I love her dearly. I hope to make her proud and show her that her sacrifices and hard work on my behalf have not been in vain. vii Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................ 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................. 49 CHAPTER 3: METHODS ........................................... 107 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS .......................................... 172 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ........................................ 316 CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH ..................................................... 401 CHAPTER 7: TABLES ............................................ 426 REFERENCES ................................................... 446 APPENDIX A: INTER-RATER RELIABILITY FORM ..................... 505 APPENDIX B: EXPERT ANALYSIS #1 (A1) .......................... 508 APPENDIX C: EXPERT ANALYSIS #2 (A2) .......................... 510 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Problem Statement Depictions of blacks in literature for children have historically been an issue of contention (Sims, 1982; Brown, 1933; Cooperative Children’s Book Center, 2013b; Martin, 2004; Taxel, 1986). In many cases, black images were nonexistent in the literature, or the images were stereotypical and perpetuated negative attitudes against blacks, which was detrimental to both black and white children (Larrick, 1965; Martin, 2004; Mathis, 1977). Accordingly, the imperative has been, and continues to be, for parents and teachers to make literature available to children that exposes them to authentic and accurate portrayals of diverse groups of people (Nodelman & Reimer, 2003; Taxel, 1982). The use of diverse literature in the classroom is critically important because social studies textbooks tend to offer minimal coverage of history topics, leaving little time to study a topic in depth (Ladson-Billings, 2003; Loewen, 2010, p. 19-21). Quality literature, in the form of trade books, can supplement an overcrowded history or social studies curriculum (Tunnell & Ammon, 1993). In the same vein as people of color, women and girls have 1 experienced problematic portrayals in literature and textbooks, such as being reflected in school materials exhibiting stereotypical behaviors or being relegated to limited roles (Peterson & Lach, 1990; Taxel, 1986). As such, the problem this study addressed is the intersectionality of race and gender in representations of black women and girls in historical fiction for children, principally female slave experiences during the time of chattel slavery in the United States. Slavery has largely been considered an assault on black manhood in which the concept of the African male was transformed into a concept of the African-American male due to the forced relinquishing of autonomy and the ongoing degradation, marginalization, and emasculation that resulted (Black, 1997). In the “Acknowledgements” of Discovering the Women in Slavery, Morton (1996) declared, “even up to the relatively recent past American historiography has still largely portrayed American slavery history as if women’s experiences and roles could be subsumed under those of men” (p. ix). Despite the fact that in recent decades historians have uncovered records and narratives that expound on the experiences of black women in history, much of the history had been lost because it 2 was initially considered unimportant (Hine & Thompson, 1998, p. 4). In this study I foregrounded the history of black women during slavery as portrayed by African American authors in selections of historical fiction for middle- level readers. This study examined ways in which slavery and the female slave experience is disseminated in this literature and sought to illuminate ways in which this kind of literature can supplement the social studies curriculum to provide rich opportunities for learning that are inclusive of the contributions of black women in America. Purpose of the Study