The Implications of Changing Makushi Identity and Traditional Practices for Forest Conservation in Guyana Deirdre Jafferally Department of Geography Royal Holloway- University of London Thesis submitted in accordance with requirements for the Degree of PhD, University of London January 2017 Declaration of Authorship I, Deirdre Moira Jafferally, hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: Date: 18 Jan, 2017 2 To the Makushi People For all the experiences and good times you have given me “It’s now time for less talk and more action” Daniel Allicock, Surama Village “But ask the animals, and they will teach you, or the birds in the sky, and they will tell you; or speak to the earth, and it will teach you, or let the fish in the sea inform you.” Job 12: 7-8 3 Abstract Indigenous knowledge has been acknowledged as being useful for the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources, particularly in current debates on forest conservation for climate change mitigation. The possession of such environmental knowledge has likened Indigenous people to being conservationists. However, Indigenous societies have been changing by outside influences that affect the continued transmission of their knowledge. Using the case study of the Makushi Indigenous people of the North Rupununi, Guyana, this thesis explores the concept of Indigenous peoples as conservationists due to the possession of traditional environmental knowledge and how developmental changes are impacting the transmission of such knowledge. The research took place in five villages and at Indigenous cultural events, and used a range of qualitative methods including semi-formal interviews, focus groups, participant observations and document analysis, to collect and analyse data. The findings reveal that historical resource use by the Makushi was not governed by active management strategies, but by cultural taboos and traditional beliefs that resulted in the sustainable use of these resources. In exploring how change was impacting traditional practices, it was shown that communities are embracing new ideas and technologies that are shifting their previously sustainable form of traditional farming to unsustainability. While there is an embrace of new ideas there is, however, juxtaposition in the perceptions between the elder generation wanting to pass on knowledge and young people wanting to learn their traditions. The findings of this research show that the steady and continued erosion of indigenous knowledge and practice would leave future generations unable to draw from this knowledge base to contribute to forest conservation. In creating new spaces for knowledge transmission future generations of Indigenous people may continue contributing to forest conservation. 4 Acknowledgements When an opportunity presents itself I was taught to grab hold of it with both hands: prepared or not. You can only hope that along the way you gain the skills and tools necessary to succeed if not you find the people who will help you get there. There are a few people who have done that for me despite all my shenanigans. First and foremost Dr Jay Mistry you have been patient beyond words. Your support and steady guidance has been my beacon on a very rocky trip. Dr Katie Willis, my devil’s advocate, you have pushed to make me and this thesis better. I am not sure I have gotten it all right but there are many lessons learned that are deeply appreciated. I started this PhD with a small group of people who are now scattered hopefully all over the globe. I wish them the best of luck and like to thank them for giving me a sounding board while in London. Sara Pologno, Mary Ondiek, Louise Brown and Sammia Poveda thank you for the support. This PhD was supported by a College Research Overseas Fees Scholarship and the COBRA Project funded by the European Commission - Seventh Framework Programme. I would like to acknowledge both for the support received. I would like to acknowledge the Geography Department Postgraduate Research Development fund for supporting my attendance to the British – Caribbean Geography Seminar in Jamaica. There are members of the COBRA Collective I would like to thank for checking in on me and providing advice based on your experiences Celine Tschirhart, Elisa Bignante, Matt Simpson and Andrea Berardi. Geraud De Ville, we were in the same boat, I hope yours come to port soon. The Guyana COBRA Crew Odacy Davis, Lakeram Haynes, Ryan Benjamin, Rebecca Xavier and Grace Albert thank you for the help and support and for not making my work too hard. It was fun working with you all and I hope it is not the last time. 5 In my bid to gain permission to conduct my research I would like to thank Diane Fernandes of the EPA, Bisham of the Ministry of Indigenous Peoples Affair and Raquel Thomas – Caesar of the Iwokrama International Centre for advice and pushing my case forward when needed. To the communities of the North Rupununi it is always a pleasure working with you. Thank you for taking me in, for teaching me and for allowing me to annoy you with my questions. I hope this work helps to preserve some of your knowledge and provide some insight to how your way of life is changing and provides you a point of reference to making decisions about those changes. Should you need help know I am there and always willing, To my family THANK YOU! My mother usually says I don’t know what you are doing but be sure to do it well. I tried mom. Thank you for all the prayers. To my father, thank you for looking out for me while in London. It meant a lot. To my little big sister, thank you for the basement providing a quite space to work. Thank you for the proof reading and access to the library system to find much needed papers and books when I could not access them through my own University. Lloyd, the elephant has been very patient. I hope you get your just reward. Thank you for the encouragement to go after this. I appreciate it. Praise to the Father for his tender mercies and grace. 6 Table of Content Contents Declaration of Authorship ................................................................................................ 2 Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 4 Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... 5 Table of Content ............................................................................................................... 7 List of Tables .................................................................................................................. 12 List of Figures ................................................................................................................ 13 List of Maps ................................................................................................................... 14 List of Plates ................................................................................................................... 15 Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... 16 Glossary .......................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 1 - Introduction ..................................................................................................... 18 1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 18 1.2 Research Location .................................................................................................... 19 1.3 Research Question .................................................................................................... 23 1.3.1 Research Justification ........................................................................................ 23 1.3.2 Research Question ............................................................................................. 24 1.3.3 Research Sub-questions ..................................................................................... 24 1.4 Potential Policy Relevance ....................................................................................... 26 1.5 Structure of Thesis ................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 2 - Context ............................................................................................................ 29 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 29 2.2 Description of Research Site .................................................................................... 32 2.2.1 Physical Description .......................................................................................... 32 2.2.2 Research Communities ...................................................................................... 37 7 2.3 Livelihoods ............................................................................................................... 46 2.3.1 Tourism .............................................................................................................. 47 2.3.2 Forestry .............................................................................................................