Physical education policy and practice: Issues and controversies in Tanzania secondary schools Linnaeus University Dissertations No 244/2016 PHYSICAL EDUCATION POLICY AND PRACTICE: ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES IN TANZANIA SECONDARY SCHOOLS JOHN DAVID KAZUNGU LINNAEUS UNIVERSITY PRESS Physical education policy and practice: Issues and controversies in Tanzania secondary schools Doctoral dissertation, Department of Education, Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden, 2016 ISBN: 978-91-88357-05-2 Published by: Linnaeus University Press, 351 95 Växjö, Sweden Printed by: Elanders Sverige AB, 2016 Abstract Kazungu, John, David (2016). Physical education policy and practice: Issues and controversies in Tanzania secondary schools, Linnaeus University Dissertation, No 244/2016, ISBN: 978-91- 88357-05-2. Written in English. Schools’ decisions to offer Physical Education (PE) is among the possible ways of involving students in physical activity, which has significant effects on students’ health, lifelong participation in physical activities and participation in sport. This thesis explores the factors and the ways they influence secondary schools’ decisions on whether or not to offer PE in Tanzania. The study is based on Institutional Theory, and on a social constructivist approach to knowledge generation, employing qualitative research methods, such as document analysis and interviews with different actors within and related to secondary schools. The study areas and the participants were purposefully sampled and included heads of school boards, heads of schools, PE teachers, parents and students. Document reviews were used in order to gather information concerning the regulative and normative conditions that govern schools. Four schools were more carefully studied – two that offer and two that do not offer PE. In these schools I focused on cultural conditions and local frames that could influence schools’ decisions. The findings indicate a number of factors which influence schools’ decisions whether or not to offer PE. Some of these factors are the availability of teaching and learning logistics, including facilities, equipment, qualified PE teachers, text books and teaching hours for the subject. Furthermore, the contribution of the examination for promotion purposes, the pen and paper examinations, the prioritization of other programmes and subjects, reliable support for the subject and the interest of those empowered to make decisions at school level also influence schools’ decisions concerning offering the subject. On the basis of the theory used in this study, to enable schools to make decisions favouring the offering of PE, there need to be consistency among the regulations and the normative and cultural-cognitive aspects of the institution. First, the regulative conditions are those that legalize the subject by forming the basis for schools’ decisions to offer the subject; these include governing and monitoring organs. Second, the normative conditions stipulate the logic of appropriateness for how the teaching should be approached; these include various normative directives, such as the curriculum and the syllabus. Finally, the cultural-cognitive conditions exert an influence on schools’ decisions through various perceptions held about the subject within the community. The thesis concludes with some implications of the study, indicating what changes will be needed concerning both the general institutional level and the school level. Keywords: Educational policy, Institutional theory, Physical Education, Secondary school, Tanzania. Svensk sammanfattning Att skolor i Tanzania beslutar sig för att erbjuda skolämnet Idrott och hälsa (Physical Education) kan vara en förutsättning för att engagera elever i fysiska aktiviteter, vilket är betydelsefullt med tanke på deras hälsa, fortsatta fysiska aktiva liv och deltagande i idrott. Denna avhandling undersöker olika faktorers inverkan på skolors (motsvarande högstadium) ställningstagande för eller emot att erbjuda Idrott och hälsa som valbart ämne. I studien, som är baserad på nyinstitutionell teori och på ett socialkonstruktivistiskt perspektiv på kunskapsutveckling, tillämpas en kvalitativ ansats genom metoder som dokumentanalys och intervjuer med olika aktörer inom och i anknytning till ett urval av skolor. Dokumentgranskningar har gjorts som grund för en analys av vilka regulativa och normativa villkor som inverkar på skolors ställningstaganden. Därutöver har fyra skolor studerats - två som erbjuder och två som inte erbjuder Idrott och hälsa. Här har syftet varit att klarlägga vilka kulturella förhållanden och lokala ramar som inverkar på skolornas beslut om att ge eller inte ge ämnet. Vid dessa skolor har intervjuer genomförts med strategiskt utvalda personer; ordföranden i skolstyrelser, skolledare, idrottslärare, föräldrar och elever. Resultaten visar att ett antal faktorer inverkar på skolors beslut om att erbjuda eller inte erbjuda Idrott och hälsa. Några av dessa faktorer är tillgången på faciliteter och utrustning, utbildade idrottslärare och läromedel. Vidare är det betydelsefullt hur undervisningstimmar i ämnet fördelas. Negativ inverkan har förhållandet att praktiskt kunnande inte bedöms i de nationella proven, att betygen i Idrott och hälsa inte har något egentligt värde i utbildningssystemet och att andra ämnen tillmäts högre status och värde. För ett positivt ställningstagande behöver det finnas ett substantiellt stöd för ämnet och ett intresse bland dem som har befogenhet att fatta beslut på skolnivå. Alla dessa faktorer inverkar på skolornas beslut om att erbjuda ämne. Utifrån den teori som används i studien måste det finnas en samsyn och överensstämmelse mellan de regulativa, normativa och kulturella villkor som styr skolan som institution för att skolor ska kunna erbjuda Idrott och hälsa. Denna studie har visat att en sådan samsyn inte föreligger. För det första bör de regulativa villkoren ge tydlig legitimitet åt ämnet genom att etablera legala förutsättningar för skolors möjligheter att erbjuda ämnet; vilket även involverar de institutioner som övervakar utbildningen. För det andra bör de normativa villkoren såsom läroplan och kursplan, vilka styr innehållet i och formerna för undervisningen i ämnet, vara relevanta och realistiska utifrån de lokala förutsättningar som råder. Slutligen bör insatser göras för att förändra de kulturella-kognitiva förutsättningarna i form av att synliggöra värdet av ämnet Idrott och hälsa med tanke på barns och ungdomars utveckling av goda hälsovanor. Avhandlingen avslutas med några implikationer av studien, vilka indikerar vilka konkreta förändringar som kan behövas såväl på institutionell och nationell nivå som på skolnivå. Nyckelord: Idrott och hälsa, nyinstitutionell teori, skola, utbildningspolicy, Tanzania Dedication I dedicate this hard work and its academic merit to my beloved wife Salesia Daniel Mwanzalila and to my children: Ngeleja, Rodney, Rhoda and Jackson, who have not just tolerated this journey with me but have supported me, encouraged me, and cheered me on throughout the process. They have mysteriously been the pillars of strength throughout the process, and I am proud of them. Special dedication to my mother: the late Rhoda Yande Kazungu who took me by hand and led me to school. (Rest in eternal peace “mammy” I will always be missing you) i Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the support and contributions to everyone who in a variety of ways made this work possible. It is difficult to mention all of them but I am feeling invigorated by the encouragement I received from everyone. I am greatly indebted to the University of Dar es Salaam for granting the study leave and trust to undertake my studies overseas. I would like to extend my appreciation to the World Bank project through the University of Dar es Salaam for sponsoring my studies. From the long list of those who supported and contributed to this study I have the great honour to name the most important persons who tirelessly guided me along my PhD journey. The leading supervisor, Professor Per Gerrevall, the first assistant supervisor, Senior Lecturer Lena Larsson, and the second assistant supervisor, Joakim Krantz, PhD. These are the three ‘pillars’ which not only introduced me into the institutional theory but also guided and supported me throughout the stages of writing this thesis. To them I owe a heavy burden and I will always pray for them and their families for a safer and longer life. My supervisors’ scholarly guidance and constructive criticism and their sharp eyes and unfailing trust in my ability have given me confidence as an academician. I am tremendously grateful for their encouragement and challenges; I will not regret being supervised by them, they were more than supervisors. Besides my supervisors, I would like to thank my examiner Associate Professor Martin Stigmar, who contributed to the quality of this thesis through advice and positive criticism. My sincere thanks also go to Professor Karin Redelius and Senior Lecturer Jan Håkansson for their constructive feedback during my final and half seminar, respectively. Both of them pointed out what I needed to focus on to improve the quality of my thesis. I would like to extend my appreciation to Gunilla Broberg for always being available for helping me out with my practical questions at Linnaeus University and for communication with the migration board for visa applications. Similarly, I would like to acknowledge the Department Faculty Office through Bodil Rönn for