Charles Dalli Contriving Coexistence: Muslims and Christians in the Unmaking of Norman Sicily [A stampa in Routines of Existence: Time, Life and After Life in Society and Religion, a cura di Elena Brambilla e altri, Pisa, Plus, 2009 (Religion and Philosophy, 4), pp. 30-43; anche in http://www.cliohres.net/books4/books.php?book=3 e in http://malta.academia.edu/CharlesDalli/Papers © dell’autore - Distribuito in formato digitale da “Reti Medievali”, www.biblioteca.retimedievali.it]. Routines of Existence : Time, Life and Aer Life in Society and Religion / Edited by Elena Brambilla … [et al.]. - Pisa: Plus-Pisa University Press, 2009 (Religion and Philosophy ; 4) 306.9 (21.) 1. Morte – Aspetti socio-culturali I. Brambilla, Elena CIP a cura del Sistema bibliotecario dell’Università di Pisa "is volume is published thanks to the support of the Directorate General for Research of the European Commission, by the Sixth Framework Network of Excellence CLIOHRES.net under the contract CIT3-CT-2005-006164. "e volume is solely the responsibility of the Network and the authors; the European Community cannot be held responsible for its contents or for any use which may be made of it. Coer: El Hortelano (José Alfonso Morera Ortiz), (1954-), Osa Mayor 1 ["e Big Dipper], 1996-1997. Image origin: VEGAP Bank of Images © 2009 by CLIOHRES.net "e materials published as part of the CLIOHRES Project are the property of the CLIOHRES.net Consortium. "ey are available for study and use, provided that the source is clearly acknowledged. [email protected] - www.cliohres.net Published by Edizioni Plus – Pisa University Press Lungarno Pacinotti, 43 56126 Pisa Tel. 050 2212056 – Fax 050 2212945 [email protected] www.edizioniplus.it - Section “Biblioteca” Member of ISBN: 978-88-8492-650-0 Informatic editing Răzvan Adrian Marinescu Editorial assistance Viktoriya Kolp Contriving Coexistence: Muslims and Christians in the Unmaking of Norman Sicily C D University of Malta ABSTRACT !e historical drama characterizing the failure and collapse of the composite society of Latin Christian Sicily, culminating in the eradication of Islam under Frederick II, is accentuated by the long-standing impression that the Norman rulers had successfully transformed the island kingdom into a stable haven of multicultural coexistence in the preceding century. Historians may have to steer a middle course between two extremes. To reduce the Sicilian experience to a clash of civilizations would be a falsi"cation of the past. To uphold Sicily as a successful case study of conivencia may be similarly re- ductionist, if not equally false. Whilst the image of Sicily as a haven of multicultural coexistence does not correspond completely to the documented realities of the island kingdom, it may also distort the investigation of the "nal decades of Islam in Sicily by arti"cially equating the collapse of a multicultural society with a breakdown of a benevolent regime of conivencia whose character and very existence remain open to historical debate. Matul is-snin, l-istorjogra!ja ta’ Sqallija jidher li nisslet l-impressjoni li l-ħakkiema Normanni kienu rnexxielhom tabilħaqq jibdlu mill-qiegħ is-saltna tagħhom !l-gżira f’benniena ta’ koeżistenza multikulturali. Dan it-twemmin a$etwa mill-qrib l-istudju tal-ġrajjiet storiċi marbutin mat-tmiem tas-soċjetà mħallta ta’ Sqallija Latina Kristjana, ġrajjiet li wasslu fost kollox għall-qerda ta’ l-Islam taħt Federiku II. Biswit għażla bejn żewġ estremi, x’aktarx li l-istoriċi jsibu li l-aħjar triq li għandhom jieħdu hija t-triq tan- nofs. Li wieħed iqis l-esperjenza multikulturali ta’ Sqallija Normanna bħala eżempju tajjeb ta’ xi ġlieda bejn ċiviltajiet di$erenti, jaf ikun falsi!kazzjoni ta’ l-istorja. Mill-banda l-oħra, li wieħed iqis lil Sqallija Normanna bħala każ ċert ta’ għajxien multikulturali li rnexxa, aktarx li jkun qed jixhed twemmin riduzzjonista jekk mhux ukoll falz. Fin-nuqqas ta’ qbil dwar l-eżistenza nni!sha ta’ din il-benniena multikulturali, id-dibattitu storiku jieħu bixra aktarx arti!ċjali. Fil-waqt li x-xbieha ta’ Sqallija bħala xi benniena multikul- Contriving Coexistence: Muslims and Christians in the Unmaking of Norman Sicily 31 turali m’hix imsejsa għal kollox !t-tagħrif dokumentat, jista’ jkun ukoll li !r-riċerka dwar l-aħħar kapitlu ta’ l-Islam !l-gżira, il-waqgħa ta’ reġim benevolenti mistħajjel li ta wens lil komunitajiet di$erenti biex jgħixu )imkien, jibda jitqies bi żball bħala r-raġuni tat- tmiem ta’ l-hekk imsejħa soċjetà multikulturali Normanna. “Hactenus urbs felix, populo dotata trilingui, corde ruit, )uitat pectore, mente cadit” la- mented Peter of Eboli in his Liber ad honorem Augusti, perhaps echoing the Siculi tri- lingues mentioned by Apuleius in the Metamorphoses (xi, v, 2). !e verse encapsulates the plight of the Sicilian capital, unexpectedly witnessing the end of an era with the premature death of the Norman king, William II “the Good”. !e image of a trilingual Palermo enshrined in Peter’s panegyrical verse to Emperor Henry VI Hohenstaufen, king of Sicily, has long been cited as a contemporary expression of the multicultural realities of 12th-century Sicily. !ough the poet’s aptly-chosen words populo dotata tri- lingui claimed to describe a multicultural reality which in fact was fast coming to an end, they also evoked an essential aspect of the legacy which Henry reclaimed on behalf of his Norman wife – namely, Latin Christian lordship over a composite society made up of diverse Latin, Greek and Arab Christian, Muslim and Jewish elements. Sicily’s evolution from the early 12th to the late 13th centuries was marked by a funda- mental shi# from a richly-variegated cultural spectrum to a severely reduced one, due to the marginalization or total elimination of formerly signi"cant cultural elements. !e island’s Greek Christians were gradually marginalized, while its severely diminished Mus- lim population was "nally eradicated through systematic deportation. !e cultural mo- saic was even richer, if one takes into account the various hues composing each main ele- ment in the spectrum: just as the term “Latin Christian” in 12th-century Sicily not only denoted the “Norman” master, but also the numerous settlers from all over Italy as well as north of the Alps, the terms “Greek Christian” and the “Muslim” did not involve cultural monotypes, but may actually express complex cross-cultural realities, for instance as im- plied by some indications of Greek-Arabic bilingualism among the island’s Christians1. A#er 1300, the surviving exception to the Latin Christian monocultural block which had taken shape was represented by the island’s Arabic-speaking Jewish communities. !is image of a “trilingual kingdom” in transition from a multicultural mosaic to a qua- si-monocultural situation, poses an interesting challenge for historians today. In rightly questioning the validity of the theory of a clash of civilizations, scholars have come up with a variety of responses. Making the case for the “dignity of di$erence”, a distin- guished author on globalization has proposed “locating the celebration of diversity at the very heart of the monotheistic imagination”2. In particular, historians of Sicily will want to emphasize the evidence for cultural interaction and interdependence, but they are also bound to question the extent to which 12th- and 13th-century Sicily may real- istically be depicted as a tolerant haven of multicultural coexistence, or conivencia. Convivencia 32 Charles Dalli Whilst the multicultural character of Norman and Hohenstaufen Sicily has long been con"rmed3, partly thanks to the surviving accounts and documentation in di$erent languages concerning the island’s diverse religious and cultural communities, few his- torians today would comfortably adopt the modern model of conivencia to depict the island’s history. Indeed, recent research has illustrated the painful evolution, cul- minating into the “ultimate failure” of the policy of populus trilinguis4. As a modern construct, the concept of conivencia helps to bring together a set of elements which express the challenges and opportunities faced by di$erent social, ethnic, cultural and religious groups sharing common geographical contexts across determined periods of time. But it can easily lead to a poetic interpretation of the past, making this concept a problematic historical tool. Moreover, it is unrealistic to expect readers of history books to rede"ne in pre-modern terms the meanings of the constituent elements in this for- mula which have become value-laden in modern contexts. One frequently-cited de"ni- tion of conivencia mentions as its key features “mutual interpenetration and creative in%uence, even as it also embraces the phenomenon of mutual friction, rivalry, and suspicion”5. One might add that it is only academic historians who would normally emphasize the second part of the formula too – namely, the confrontational elements; and it seems to be the general tendency to concentrate on the more positive aspects by which culturally diverse groups come closer together, even perhaps to the point of overlapping into a state of quasi-assimilation. Conivencia has come to represent tolera- tion of the ‘other’6, whoever that might actually be, but some of its major exponents have stressed that it is a culturally dynamic product which has both collaboration and con%ict inbuilt in it. Mediterranean history is unquestionably rich in examples of re- ciprocal toleration. Nevertheless, failure to draw a clear distinction between medieval practices of toleration, and the modern value of tolerance, may render the application of the concept even less acceptable. !e term was promoted in Spanish historiography from the linguistic "eld to encompass a much wider de"nition of cultural behaviour; it was employed to study the impact of Muslim and Jewish cultures on the dominant Christian culture, but it also came to be perceived as a convenient tool to study the fate of subordinate communities7.