Synthetic Cultural Resource Overview of the Bureau of Land Management’s Royal Gorge Field Office, Eastern Colorado by Rand A. Greubel, Jack E. Pfertsh, Charles A. Reed, Michael J. Prouty, Sara A. Millward, Jeremy Omvig, Jaclyn Mullen, Matthew J. Landt, and Jonathon C. Horn Principal Investigator: Rand A. Greubel Submitted by Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc. P.O. Box 2075 Montrose, Colorado 81402 (970) 249-6761 Prepared for Bureau of Land Management Royal Gorge Field Office 3028 East Main Street Cañon City, CO 81212 Order No. 1422 L14PX01241 March 2017 CONTENTS Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Environmental Setting ................................................................................................................... 1 Southern Rocky Mountains............................................................................................... 1 The Great Plains Province ................................................................................................ 5 Climate ............................................................................................................................... 7 The Paleoindian Stage ................................................................................................................................ 8 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 8 Chronology ...................................................................................................................................... 8 Chronology: Current Research ......................................................................................... 8 Pre-Clovis ........................................................................................................................................ 9 Clovis ............................................................................................................................................... 9 Clovis: Current Research ................................................................................................ 10 Goshen-Plainview ......................................................................................................................... 10 Folsom ........................................................................................................................................... 11 Folsom: Current Research .............................................................................................. 11 Late Paleoindian/Plano ................................................................................................................ 11 Late Paleoindian: Current Research .............................................................................. 12 Data Gaps and Directions for Future Research ......................................................................... 13 The Archaic Stage ...................................................................................................................................... 14 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 14 Chronology .................................................................................................................................... 14 Chronology: Recent Research ......................................................................................... 15 Radiocarbon calibration .................................................................................................. 17 Technology .................................................................................................................................... 18 Projectile Points ............................................................................................................... 18 Technology: Recent Research .......................................................................................... 19 Settlement and Transhumance Patterns .................................................................................... 20 Settlement and Transhumance: Recent Research ........................................................ 21 Recent Research on Mountain Occupations .................................................................. 22 Subsistence.................................................................................................................................... 24 Subsistence: Recent Research ......................................................................................... 24 Seasonality .................................................................................................................................... 25 Rock Art ......................................................................................................................................... 25 Architecture .................................................................................................................................. 26 Paleoclimate and Geomorphology ............................................................................................... 27 Recent Research............................................................................................................... 27 Rockshelter Occupation ................................................................................................................ 28 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 28 Data Gaps and Directions for Future Research ......................................................................... 29 The Late Prehistoric Stage ....................................................................................................................... 31 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 31 Chronology and Database ............................................................................................................ 31 Apishapa Phase ............................................................................................................... 34 Sopris Phase ..................................................................................................................... 34 Chronology: Recent Research ......................................................................................... 34 Population Dynamics ................................................................................................................... 37 Apishapa Population Dynamics ...................................................................................... 38 Sopris Population Dynamics ........................................................................................... 39 Population Dynamics: Recent Research ......................................................................... 40 Technology .................................................................................................................................... 42 Ceramics ........................................................................................................................... 42 iii Contents, continued Lithics ............................................................................................................................... 46 Bone Tools and Ornaments ............................................................................................. 51 Miscellaneous Materials ................................................................................................. 52 Settlement Patterns ..................................................................................................................... 52 Apishapa Settlement Patterns ....................................................................................... 54 Sopris Settlement Patterns ............................................................................................. 55 Settlement Patterns: Recent Research .......................................................................... 56 Rock Art ......................................................................................................................................... 57 Rock Art: Recent Research .............................................................................................. 58 Economy and Subsistence ............................................................................................................ 59 Apishapa Economy and Subsistence .............................................................................. 60 Sopris Economy and Subsistence ................................................................................... 61 Economy and Subsistence: Recent Research ................................................................. 61 Architecture .................................................................................................................................. 62 Apishapa Architecture .................................................................................................... 64 Sopris Architecture .......................................................................................................... 64 Architecture: Recent Research ......................................................................................