IDEOLOGIES OF ENGLISH TEACHING AND LEARNING IN TAIWAN Submitted by JACKIE CHANG A thesis submitted in total fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Linguistics The University of Sydney March, 2004 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my sincerest appreciation to the following people who have in a myriad of ways, helped to make my studies at the University of Sydney both successful and enjoyable. As well, they have made possible the completion of this thesis. Dr. Ingrid Piller, my academic supervisor, has patiently supported and constantly encouraged me through the completion of this thesis. Her unfailing support, insights, professional supervision and constant encouragement in helping all her students have earned my deepest respect, admiration, and appreciation. Without her, this thesis would not have been completed. Mr. Donald Goudie, an intellectual and a good friend, has kindly proof read my work. His comments on my writing style and his editing have been invaluable in my writing this thesis. His efforts were very helpful and are truly appreciated. Mr. Joe Green, my soul mate, was instrumental in getting me started on my Ph.D. program. His confidence in me and his constant support will never be forgotten. Above all, I must acknowledge the debt I owe to my parents, for their unflagging support. Without the love and support of my parents, the task of completing this thesis would have been overwhelming. My love and appreciation for them is beyond description. ii ABSTRACT This study is motivated by a critical need to engage in socio-linguistic analysis, within the field of English language teaching (ELT) and second language acquisition (SLA) in English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) countries. The ideologies alluded to in my title are: ‘English-as-the-global-language’; ‘the-ideal-English-teacher’; ‘the-ideal- English-teaching-methodology’; ‘American-English-as-standard-English’; and ‘the- younger-the-better’. The methodology used in this research is Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). I am employing this methodology to investigate language school promotional materials that may, at first cursory examination, seem mundane and even ideologically naive, but which in fact convey these very concepts. Source material is drawn from a corpus of advertising materials for private language schools in Taiwan specifically: school fliers, websites, television commercials and television English teaching programs. They all deal with English teaching and learning. The premises of English language teaching and learning in Taiwan are based on the assumption that English language mastery is the key to achieving a better life and future for the aspiring individual, particularly in the context of globalization. However, the study reveals that English teaching and learning has, in fact, resulted in wide spread social, cultural, educational, and linguistic inequalities in contemporary Taiwanese society. A search for the reasons and possible ramifications of these disparities would appear to be more than justifiable, on both pedagogical and humanitarian grounds. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………...1 1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………….1 1.1 The Role of English in the World……………………………………….2 1.2 The Role of Language Schools…………………………………………...4 1.3 Language Schools and Globalization…………………………………...7 1.4 Conclusion and Research Questions …………………………………….9 1.5 Overview of the Thesis ………………………………………………….10 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………13 2.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..13 2.1 Ideologies of English Teaching and Learning …………………………14 2.1.1 English-as-the-Global-Language …………………………………….15 2.1.1.1 Linguistic Imperialism ………………………………………16 2.1.1.2 Linguistic Capital ………………………………………………19 2.1.1.3 Language Policy ……………………………………………21 2.1.2 The-Ideal-English-Teacher …………………………………………..23 2.1.2.1 Native Speaker Fallacy ………………………………………24 2.1.2.2 Native Speaker Model ………………………………………26 2.1.2.3 Implications for English Teachers …………………………28 2.1.3 Ideal-English-Teaching-Methodology ………………………………29 2.1.3.1 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ………………29 2.1.3.2 English-Only Immersion Method ………………………………33 2.1.3.3 Context-Based Approach ……………………..…………………35 2.1.4 American-English-as-standard-English ……………………………...36 2.1.4.1 Accent ………………………………………..…………………39 2.1.4.2 World Englishes (WE) ………………………..…………………42 2.1.5 The-Younger-the-Better ……………………………………………44 2.1.5.1 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) ……………………………..45 2.1.5.2 Early English Education in EFL Countries ………………48 2.1.6 Conclusion …………………………………………………………..50 2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Media Discourses …...51 2.2.1 Discourse Analysis vs. Critical Discourse Analysis …….…...51 2.2.2 Media Discourses ……………………………………………………52 2.2.2.1 Marketized English …………………………………………53 2.2.2.2 Critical Linguistics – Systemic Linguistics ………………56 2.3 CAL and CDA ……………………………………………………...60 iv 2.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………62 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ………………………………………...63 3.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..63 3.1 Rationale for Research Method ………………………………………..63 3.2 Data Collection ………………………………………………………..65 3.2.1 English Teaching Job Ads …………………………………………66 3.2.2 School Fliers …………………………………………………………69 3.2.3 Websites ……………………………………………………………..71 3.2.4 Television Commercials and Television English Teaching Programs 74 3.2.5 Summary …………………………………………………………….76 3.3 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………77 3.3.1 Classified Ads Register (CAR) ……………………………………...78 3.3.2 Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) ……………………………….79 3.3.3 Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA)………………………….82 3.4 Transliteration and Coding …………………………………………….85 3.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….87 CHAPTER FOUR: ENGLISH IN TAIWAN ……………………………………88 4.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..88 4.1 Background on Taiwan …………………………………………………88 4.1.1 Location ……………………………………………………………...88 4.1.2 People and Languages ……………………………………………….89 4.1.3 Colonialism ………………………………………………………….89 4.1.4 Economy ……………………………………………………………90 4.2 Current Educational System …………………………………………...90 4.2.1 The Goals and Legal Basis of the Education System ……………90 4.2.2 Educational Administrative System …………………………………92 4.2.3 An Educational Overview …………………………………………...92 4.2.3.1 School Classification …………………………………………92 4.2.3.2 English Curriculum, Textbooks, and Materials ……………93 4.2.3.3 English Teacher qualification ………………………………94 4.2.4 Current English Language Policies ………………………………95 4.3 Ideologies and English Language Policies ……………………………..96 4.3.1 English as an Instrument of Social Stratification …………………97 4.3.1.1 Education ……………………………………………….…98 4.3.1.2 Employment ………………………………………………103 4.3.2. Linguistic Inequality ……………………………………………106 v 4.3.2.1 Monolingual Language Policies …………………………106 4.3.2.2 English Language Policy – Implicit Monolingual Language Policies ………………… ……………………108 4.3.2.3 English as Quasi-official Language…………………… 111 4.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………114 CHAPTER FIVE: “ENGLISH-AS-THE-GLOBAL-LANGUAGE” ………….116 5.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………116 5.1 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………..117 5.1.1 TC7 Television Commercial ……………………………………….117 5.1.2 Slogans and Short Paragraphs ……………………………...120 5.1.2.1 Foreign Language Words – English as a Marketing Strategy 122 5.1.2.2 Semiotic Construction ……………………………………124 5.1.2.3 Grammatical Choices in English Texts …………………..…125 5.1.2.4 Grammatical Choices in Mandarin Texts ………………..…131 5.1.3 Still Images ……………………………………………….…139 5.1.3.1 English-as-the-Global-Language in Still Images ……..…140 5.1.3.2 Symbolism – Things …………………………………………142 5.1.3.3 Symbolism – People …………………………………………144 5.1.3.4 Symbolism – Places …………………………………………147 5.1.3.5 Point of View – Direct and Indirect Address ………………148 5.1.4 School Names ………………………………………………150 5.1.4.1 English as a Marketing Strategies in School Names …………152 5.1.4.2 English-as-the-Global-Language in School Names ………154 5.1.4.3 Symbolism – School Names …………………………………156 5.1.4.4 Symbolic Quality ……………………………………………156 5.1.4.5 Commemorative Names ……………………………………158 5.1.4.6 Fame, Achievement, and Ability ……………………………159 5.3 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………...159 CHAPTER SIX: THE “IDEAL-ENGLISH-TEACHER” ……………………161 6.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………161 6.1 Overview of the Data and Introduction to Analysis………………162 6.1.1 Television Commercials and Television English Teaching Programs………………………………………………………..…. 162 6.1.2 English Teaching Job Ads ………………………………………….162 6.1.3 Slogans and Short Paragraphs ……………………………………...163 6.1.4 Body Texts …………………………………………………………165 vi 6.1.5 Still Images …………………………………………………………166 6.1.6 School Names ………………………………………………………166 6.2 Analysis ………………………………………………………………167 6.2.1 The Native Speaker Ideology ………………………………………168 6.2.1.1 TC5 Television Commercial ………………………………168 6.2.1.2 TET1 Television English Teaching Program ……………172 6.2.1.3 Names ………………………………………………………174 6.2.2 Native and Non-native Division …………………………………..…175 6.2.2.1 English Teaching Job Ads …………………………………176 6.2.2.2 School Fliers and Websites ………………………………177 6.2.3 White and Non-white Division …………………………………….180 6.2.3.1 English Teaching Job Ads, School Fliers, and Websites ……180 6.2.3.2 The Job World ………………………….……………………..182 6.3 Who is an Ideal-English-Teacher? ……………………………………184 6.3.1 Are Teachers Born or Made? ………………………………….185 6.3.2 Native English Speaking Teacher (NEST) …………………………185 6.3.3 Non-native English Speaking Teacher (NNEST) ………………….192 6.3.4 Native and Non-native Can Be Ideal-English-Teachers …………...195