Lecture 4 What is science? A possible definition The philosophy of Thomas Kuhn Humanities Pseudo-Science Philosophical analysis of science If you make an analysis of science it could be: Normative - It tells you how science should be Descriptive - It tells you have science is actually done Popper’s ideas of science are mainly normative Another philosopher, Thomas Kuhn, presented a descriptive philosophy of science History of science - why? When we study philosophy of science we often look at moments in the history of science. Admittedly, these moments can be several hundred years old. But these are relatively simple examples of philosophical problems which illustrates main thoughts in science. It is not always easy to find equally clearcut modern examples. We give some highlights: Aristotle One of the first scientists What Aristotle did He gave a description of causes in nature. There are four kinds of causes: A. Material causes B. Efficient causes C. Formal causes D. Final causes He gave a primitive description of physics He constructed the first formal logic in the form of syllogisms. For Aristotle, science seems to be about classifying things. Euclid The creator of formal mathematics What Euclid did He axiomatised geometry and established a new standard for strict reasoning He listed a set of undeniable truths (axiom) and showed how theorems can be deduced from the axioms in a rigorous way He showed how we can reach insights by just using our minds This set a standard for reasoning that is still an essential part of science The first revolution Copernicus The Renaissance During the Renaissance several scientific developments took place. The human body and the circulation of the blood Copernicus' heliocentric world view The heliocentric worldview Kepler The heliocentric world view Tycho Brahe makes observations. He describes his own world view: The Earth is at the center of the Universe. The Sun orbits the Earth. The planets orbit the Sun. Kepler describes a new heliocentric world view where the planets move in ellipses. The scientific revolution Descartes Galilei The scientific revolution Galileo Galilei makes experiments. He discovers a law for the movements of pendulums. Bodies with different weights fall equally fast. He constructs telescopes. He discovers mountains on the surface of the moon... ...and moons circling around Jupiter... ...and rings around Saturn. He becomes convinced by Copernicus' model. He gets punished by the church. The scientific revolution II Descartes: ”Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) He creates a program for how research should be done. He presents a totally mechanistic worldview: Everything can be explained by interactions between physical bodies. He invents analytical geometry. Newton The greatest scientist ever? Newton's mechanics At the age of 23 Newton formulates three mechanical laws and the law of gravitation. He develops the Calculus (Differential-and Integral Calculus). The calculus and his mechanics form the cornerstone in the first modern science. At the end of the 17th century Newton's mechanics is internationally recognized. Newton is perhaps the first really socially esteemed scientist. Science established The Royal Society is established in England. Experiments are performed. Research on astronomy, gases and animals. Microscopes are used. Newton is at several times in conflict with the other scientists. Newton's optics. Conflict with Leibniz. Some attempts to define science There are other possible ways to define what is science and what is not How about astrology? Is it science or not? If you say no - why is that so? Perhaps it could be because astrology lacks a central theory and methodology Or is it because it lacks possible research programs? We will look at another controversial ”theory”: Intelligent design Creationism and Intelligent Design Creationism is the belief that the world and all living things in whole or in part is the result of divine intervention or supernatural means. Creationism is consistent with classical Christianity but may also allow other interpretations of semi-religious character. Intelligent design is the notion that life on Earth is too complex to have arisen and developed exclusively by random variation and natural selection as biology's theory of evolution says. It is customary to give examples of organs that are irreducibly complex. This would indicate an element of deliberate, intelligent design at various times during the evolution of life. They forward the thesis that there are certain phenomena in the universe and among living things that can best be explained with reference to an intelligent cause, not with reference to undirected natural processes such as natural selection. A cut out of American history In the 1920s, John Scopes, a schoolteacher in Tennessee, was sentenced for teaching evolution. The trial became famous and known as "The Monkey Trial". The law that prohibited the teaching of evolution was lifted only in 1967. John Thomas Scopes Meanwhile, it is also forbidden to teach religion in the United States. 1981 the state of Arkansas enacts a law requiring schools to devote equal time to the teaching of creation-science as of evolution. 1982 the law was condemned as unconstitutional in a famous trial. Creation-science is deemed unscientific in a famous ruling by Judge Overton. How to define a scientific theory To be more specific, he used these five points to describe the difference between a scientific theory and a pseudo- scientific theory. A scientific theory must fulfill this: It is guided by natural law. It has to be explained by reference to natural law. It is testable against the empirical world. Its conclusions are tentative, i.e., are not necessarily the final word. It is falsifiable. Reflections Is the requirement that science should refer to natural laws reasonable? Could we not, by that criterion, have to reject several well- established theories? Is it really true that creation-science cannot be falsified? A natural objection to creation-science is that it is not constructive. It just attacks the theory of evolution. Thomas Kuhn Thomas Kuhn 1922-1996 American. Doctor of physics at Harvard. Became more and more interested in the history and philosophy of science. In 1962 he published ”The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”. This is probably the most influential book on the philosophy of science ever published. The book introduced the phrase paradigm shift. Kuhn's philosophy A paradigm consists of terms, methods, norms and ways of viewing thing. It defines our way of understanding the world (or at least a part of it). Normal science is science as it is done within the paradigm. In revolutionary science we reject the old paradigm and replace it with a new one. More details In normal science we don't put the paradigm on trial. All problems are handled within the paradigm. Within the paradigm we are doing ”puzzle-solving”. It is characteristic of real science that there is an established program for such problem solving. When a crisis occurs, it can lead to a paradigm shift. Such a shift is often done for irrational reasons. Two paradigms are incommensurable with each other. Problems with Kuhn's philosophy Is it a recommendation for how science should be done? Yes, in a way. The philosophy focuses on the importance of stability in normal science. We would like to think that a paradigm shift always leads to a better paradigm. How can we tell if this is actually the case? Kuhn doesn't provide a clear answer to this question. The two cultures Science - Humanities Why do we have the division? Do we want it? Is it necessary? Three ways to classify Sciences • What is the conception of truth ? • What methods are used? • What are the goals you want to achieve? Exemples of sciences How would we classify the following areas based on the previous questions? Psychology ? History? Political Science? Literary Theory ? Economics ? Mathematics and Natural Science Truth: An objective truth. Method: In essence deduction and hypothetical - deductive method linked to experiments. Objectives: Knowledge of the objectively existing world and the mathematical world . The Humanities Truth: Very diverse perceptions. Method: The hermeneutic method ( understanding) seems the most important. Goal: Very diverse perceptions. Most likely, they are all about understanding the world in all aspects related to humans. The American Civil War • What started the war? • What was it all about? • Could it have ended differently? Collectivism versus individualism To answer the first question , there are different strategies. Methodological individualism : Analyze what the most important actors in the historical process did and thought . Methodological collectivism : Analyze the ideas and forces that existed in society and what they led to . What was the war about? • It is thought to be about the existance of slavery. • It could also have been about the federal governments right to control over the states. • Who is right? Narration One view is that a historical explanation must be given by a narration. Narration = Story (but narration sounds more professional ) An explanation of war must therefore be given through a story about the war. The story must meet certain logical requirements . What are they? Demands an a Narration Are there scientific criteria for a correct story? The story should have a clear horizon of understanding of background knowledge. Cause and effect in the story should be clear relative to this horizon of understanding. Contrafactuals An example : What if the Confederacy had not lost the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 ? Would the United States have existed now? Would there have been a WW2? Most historians seem the regard contrafactual thinking as an example of ”bad science”. This is probably because history is not concerned with scientific laws . Humanities - An overview Some examples: Theory of literature Art History Parts of Philosophy History of Ideas Politics ( perhaps) On the whole, everything that are cultural products.