UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Fujimoto Diaries 1941-1946: Japanese American Community in Riverside, California, and Toranosuke Fujimoto’s National Loyalties to Japan and the United States During the Wartime Internment A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History by Akiko Nomura December 2010 Dissertation Committee Dr. Clifford E. Trafzer, Chairperson Dr. Lane Ryo Hirabayashi Dr. David Biggs Copyright by Akiko Nomura 2010 This Dissertation of Akiko Nomura is approved: Date__________________ ____________________________________ Committee Chairperson Date__________________ _____________________________________ Date__________________ _____________________________________ University of California, Riverside Acknowledgments During my years of study and research at the University of California, Riverside, I have accumulated many debts of gratitude. Since it is impossible to thank everyone individually, I would like to thank my mentors, colleagues, friends and family for their encouragement and support during this long process. Without their assistance, this dissertation would not have been possible. I also owe thanks to several organizations for their generous financial support. The Knox and Carlotta Mellon Fellowship, the Department of History, UCR, allowed me to travel to Arizona and conduct research at the University of Arizona. The findings from this research resulted in Chapter 5. The Dissertation Writing Fellowship, the Department of History, UCR, allowed me to focus on translation of the Fujimoto Diaries for a year. The Alpha Association of Phi Beta Kappa Alumni in Southern California enabled me to continue working on translation and of the Fujimoto Diaries. I would like to thank many individuals who have helped me complete the project. The Fujimoto family in the United States and in Wakayama shared the memories of their childhood with me in interviews and via emails messages. Kevin Hallaran of the Riverside Metropolitan Museum, California, offered me internship opportunities several times in the early stage of my study. This experience taught me the basics of archival research, and the findings resulted in Chapter 2 and 3. Finally, staff of the History Department of UCR, especially Susan Komura, Rosie Mamaril, and Deisy Escobedo aided in completion of my program and research. iv Professor Clifford Trafzer, the chairperson of my dissertation committee, provided guidance continuously for seven years since I came to UCR. His patience and energy to teach me at various levels in the academic life in the United States opened my eyes about university education at large. Professor Lane Ryo Hirabayashi expanded my knowledge about Asian American Studies and taught me responsibilities of academia for the society. His detailed feedback always motivated me to learn. Professor David Biggs consulted with me for every matter. He helped me set short-term goals, for which I was able to manage this long process of writing and researching. I would like to thank my colleagues and supervisors at my work, the Office of Research Advancement and Intellectual Property, Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan. They welcomed me warmly to their office and supported me to complete this project from Japan. Above all, I thank my family. My late grand father, Noboru Nomura, my late grand mother, Momoyo Nomura, my father, Masayuki Nomura, and my mother, Harue Nomura, my sisters, Harumi Nomura and Kiyoko Ohara, my late aunt, Mie Kondaibo, and my uncle, Kenichiro Senbon, all influenced who I have become and what I have been able to accomplish. v ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Fujimoto Diaries 1941-1946: Japanese American Community in Riverside, California, and Toranosuke Fujimoto’s National Loyalties to Japan and the United States During the Wartime Internment by Akiko Nomura Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in History University of California, Riverside, December 2010 Dr. Clifford E. Trafzer, Chairperson The study is titled, “Fujimoto Diaries 1941-1946: Japanese American Community in Riverside, California, and Toranosuke Fujimoto’s National Loyalties to Japan and the United States During the Wartime Internment.” It explores the life of a first generation Japanese immigrant and his family who resided in Riverside, California, during the Pacific War and World War II. It is based on the extensive diaries of Toranosuke Fujimoto written in Japanese and found in Special Collection, Rivera Library, University of California, Riverside. I propose to translate the diaries from 1935 to 1946, and write a substantial analysis of the diaries through a comprehensive introduction of the documents. The diaries of Toranosuke Fujimoto demonstrate how his identity changed over time in relation to social conditions of Imperial Japan and the United States between the Pacific War and World War II. Fujimoto was a student of western civilization, Christian humanity and the American life style as a whole, who wished to become more developed person. While he quickly accommodated the new life in the United States, he never vi forgot serving for the country, Japan. He maintained strong adherence to the Japanese government and the emperor and strongly believed in Japanese military advancement in East Asia with a hope of Japanese takeover of the Asia during World War II. However, by the end of the war Fujimoto discarded his faith in both countries. Instead, he became distrustful to militarism based on his faith in Christianity. The transition of his identity reveals the complexity of one immigrant’s life in the middle of international turmoil and influences of the Japanese American Internment. vii Table of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Fujimoto’s passage to the United States, late 1880s – early 1900s. 9 Fujimoto’s Biographical Background Economic Reasons of Fujimoto’s Immigration: Impact of the Meiji Restoration in Wakayama –and Economic Reasons for Overseas Emigration from Wakayama Economic Reason of Fujimoto’s Immigration: Economic Conditions of California Non-Economic Reasons for Fujimoto’s Immigration: Aspiration for Success through Education Modernization and Hakubunkan Diary Notebooks Non-economic reasons for Fujimoto’s immigration: Westernization and Christian Missionaries in Japan Social Conditions Surrounding Immigration to the United States (1896 to 1941) Chapter 2: Fujimoto’s life in the United States – the 1900 to the 1920s 32 The Formation of the Japanese Community in Riverside The Formation of Japanese Community in Riverside – Japanese Businesses The Formation of the Japanese Community in Riverside – Religion The Formation of Japanese Community in Riverside – Home-tie Organizations Anti-Japanese Sentiment: The Alien Land Law of 1913 and the Harada Case viii Chapter 3 Japanese Community in Riverside during the 1930s 53 Displaying the “Japanese Culture”: the Beaumont Cherry Blossom Festival Preservation of the Japanese cultural traditions: Keisen Girls’ School, Tokyo, Japan. Fujimoto’s National Loyalty to Japan and the United States Chapter 4: After the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor: Detention and Internment 86 Fujimoto’s Transfer to the Colorado River Relocation Center Fujimoto’s National Loyalty to Japan Chapter 5: Fujimoto’s Oscillating National Loyalty at Poston: Expressions of Japanese Patriotism in Literary Activities 103 Historiography on the Japanese cultural activities at the internment camps Definitions of “Resistance” in Historiography of Japanese American Internment Camps Origin of the Poston Bungei Recognition as Community Leaders Community Reform through the Poston Bungei The Emergence of the Issei as Community Leaders: the Development of Poston Bungei as an Adult Education and Fujimoto’s Role in the Education Department Sustaining the Expression of Japanese Nationalism WRA Regulations on Communication and the Use of Japanese Impact of the Poston Bungei: Identity of Transnational Identity ix Chapter 6: Fujimoto’s Expression of the Japanese Nationalism and Resettlement 135 Transformation of Fujimoto’s National Loyalty and Expression Fujimoto’s Resettlement in Riverside, California Rebuiding of the Japanese American Community in Riverside after 1945 Epilogue 146 Bibliography 147 Appendices The Fujimoto Diaries 1941 158 The Fujimoto Diaries 1942 232 The Fujimoto Diaries 1943 359 The Fujimoto Diaries 1944 436 The Fujimoto Diaries 1945 547 The Fujimoto Diaries 1946 639 x List of Figures Figure 1 “Cherry Blossom Festivl Today,” Los Angeles Times, April 3, 1932 66 Figure 2 Japanese Girls in Kimono, Los Angeles Times, March 27, 1933 67 Figure 4 “Yari yakko (Dance with Spears),” Mission Inn Museum, Riverside, California 69 Figure 5 “International Good Will Expressed in Lovely Setting,” Los Angeles Times, Mrach 27, 1933 70 Figure 6 Programs of the Third Annual Japanese Cherry Festival 71 Figure 7 Pamphlet for Riverside Ethno Tourism 72 Figure 8 Issei Loyalty Statement 85 Figure 9 Signatures from Issei 116 xi Introduction This study explores a national identity of Toranosuke George Fujimoto, the first generation of Japanese Americans or Issei, who lived in Riverside, California, between 1913 and 1967 based on his personal diaries, the Fujimoto Diaries, housed in the Special Collection, Rivera Library, University of California, Riverside. The diaries of Toranosuke Fujimoto, a Japanese immigrant in Riverside, California, demonstrate how his identity changed over time in relation to social conditions of Imperial Japan and the United States during World War II. Fujimoto admired the United States