Theorizing Crisis Communication Foundations of Communication Theory Series Editor Marshall Scott Poole (University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana) Editorial Board James Aune (Texas A&M University); Robert T. Craig (University of Colorado at Boulder); Leah Lievrouw (University of California Los Angeles); Alan Rubin (Kent State University, Emeritus); David Seibold (University of California Santa Barbara) The Foundations of Communication Theory series publishes innova- tive textbooks that summarize and integrate theory and research for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate courses. In addition to offering state-of-the-art overviews in a broad array of subfields, authors are encouraged to make original contributions to advance the conversa- tion within the discipline. Written by senior scholars and theorists, these books will provide unique insight and new perspectives on the core sub-disciplinary fields in communication scholarship and teaching today. Published Organizational Change: Creating Change Through Strategic Commu- nication, Laurie K. Lewis Theorizing Crisis Communication, Timothy L. Sellnow and Matthew W. Seeger Forthcoming Foundations of Media and Communication Theory, Leah Lievrouw Managing Privacy, Sandra Petronio Foundations of Organizational Communication, Linda Putnam and Scott Poole Dilemma-Centered Political Communication, Herbert W. Simons Timothy L. Sellnow and Matthew W. Seeger Theorizing Crisis Communication A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing. 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Cover design by RBDA Set in 10/12.5pt Century by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited 1 2013 Contents Notes on Authors viii 1 Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory 1 Defining Crisis 4 Defining Communication 10 Theory 15 Plan for This Book 21 Conclusion 22 2 Theories of Communication and Crisis Development 25 Assumptions of Stage Models 27 Three-Stage Model 30 Fink’s Four-Stage Cycle 33 Turner’s Six-Stage Sequence of Failure in Foresight 37 Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 40 Conclusion 45 3 Theories of Communication and Warning 49 Detection of Risks 50 Functional Approaches to Communication and Warning 51 Hear-Confirm-Understand-Decide-Respond Model 57 Protective Action Decision Model 60 Integrated Model of Food Recall 67 Emerging Warning Systems 71 Conclusion 72 4 Theories of Communication and Crisis Outcomes 76 Organizational Learning 77 Sensemaking 83 vi Contents Organizational Legitimacy 87 Situational Crisis Communication Theory 91 Discourse of Renewal 96 Conclusion 100 5 Theories of Communication and Emergency Response 105 Assumptions of Communication and Emergency Response 107 Chaos Theory and Emergent Self-Organization 108 Theories of Communication and Crisis Coordination 114 Communication and Community Resilience 122 Four-Channel Model of Communication 127 Conclusion 132 6 Theories of Communication and Mediated Crises 138 News Framing Theory 140 Focusing Events 143 Uses and Gratifications Theory 147 Crisis News Diffusion 151 Diffusion of Innovations 154 Conclusion 158 7 Theories of Influence and Crisis Communication 163 Apologia 165 Image Repair 168 Kategoria 172 Dramatism 176 Narrative Theory 181 Conclusion 184 8 Theories of Communication and Risk Management 188 Mindfulness 190 High Reliability Organizations 195 Precautionary Principle 200 Cultural Theory 204 Risk Communication as Argument 208 Conclusion 212 9 Theories of Crisis Communication and Ethics 217 Ethics 218 Crisis Communication as an Ethical Domain 221 Responsible Communication 223 Contents vii Significant Choice 225 The Ethic of Care 227 Virtue Ethics 229 Justice 230 Applications of Moral Theory to Crisis 232 Conclusion 235 10 Using Theories of Crisis Communication 239 Minimization of Communication in an All-Hazards Approach 240 The Practicality of Theory in Understanding Crisis Communication 242 The Pathway for Inspiring Meaningful Change 243 Successful Connections Linking Theory-Based Research and Practitioners 245 Promising New Lines of Research 250 Persistent Challenges 257 A Final Word 259 Index 263 Notes on Authors Timothy L. Sellnow is Professor of Communication and Associate Dean for Graduate Studies in Communication at the University of Ken- tucky. Dr. Sellnow’s interdisciplinary research on risk and crisis com- munication appears in an array of refereed journals, handbooks, and edited volumes. He has also co-authored five books on risk and crisis communication. Dr. Sellnow frequently serves as a consultant for Fortune 500 companies in the food industry and government agencies such as the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) on risk and crisis communica- tion planning. Matthew W. Seeger is Dean of the College of Fine, Performing and Communication Arts and a Professor of Communication at Wayne State University in Detroit. His work on crisis, risk and communication has appeared in more than 100 journal articles, book chapters, and confer- ence proceedings. Dr. Seeger is the author or co-author of six books on organizational communication ethics and crisis and risk communica- tion. Dr. Seeger also frequently serves as advisor to the auto industry, manufacturing organizations and government agencies, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on topics related to crisis management. 1 Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory Crises are increasingly important social, political, economic and envi- ronmental forces and arguably create more change more quickly than any other single phenomenon. Crises have the potential to do great harm, creating widespread and systematic disruption. But they may also be forces for constructive change, growth and renewal. They can quickly reshape institutions, create shifts in demographics and populations, alter ecosystems, undermine economic stability and change widely held beliefs. Understanding these events, therefore, is critical. A significant component of that understanding involves clarifying the role of com- munication processes in the onset, management, resolution and meaning of crises. Recent examples, including the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Hurricane Katrina and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, illustrate the rapid change that happens following a crisis. The events of 9/11 precipitated not only a fundamental rethinking of federal policy but also created the most comprehensive reorganization of the US federal government to occur in Theorizing Crisis Communication, First Edition. Edited by Timothy L. Sellnow and Matthew W. Seeger. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2 Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory decades. Hurricane Katrina saw a major demographic shift in New Orleans and created new understandings of risk and the role of govern- ments in response to disasters. The 2004 tsunami claimed as many as 230,000 lives in 14 countries, wiped away entire communities, and created widespread economic and environmental damage. It also called attention to the risks associated with tsunamis and development in coastal areas. Historically, the worst crises have been earthquakes and infectious disease pandemics. The 1918–1919 influenza, or Spanish flu, pandemic