Department of Management Science Model of Learning Ability Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Viktor Dörfler Glasgow, 2005 Declaration of author‟s rights © The copyright of this thesis belongs to the author under the terms of the United Kingdom Copyright Acts as qualified by University of Strathclyde Regulation 3.49. Due acknowledgement must always be made of the use of any material contained in, or derived from, this thesis. Content Content Content i Figures and Tables iv List of Figures iv List of Tables vi Acknowledgements vii Abstract ix 1. Introduction 1 2. Scientific Problem Solving 8 2.1. On Paradigm 10 2.2. On Induction 17 2.3. On Observations 22 2.4. On Qualia 30 2.5. On Method 37 2.6. On Creativity 44 2.7. On Freedom of the Scientist 52 2.8. The Process of Scientific Problem Solving 59 2.9. Chapter Summary 65 3. The Problem Domain 66 3.1. Rationalities for Decision Taking 67 3.2. Systems 73 3.3. Value Systems 86 3.4. Cognitive Processes and Memory 94 3.5. Attention 102 3.6. Motivation and the Flow Experience 110 3.7. Expert Systems 121 3.8. Chapter Summary 131 4. Defining the Component Problems 133 4.1. Knowledge 134 4.1.1. Definitions of Knowledge 134 i Content 4.1.2. Aspect 1: System of Knowledge 137 4.1.3. Aspect 2: Personal Knowledge 141 4.1.4. Aspect 3: Tacit and Explicit Knowledge 144 4.1.5. Aspect 4: Intuition, Skills, and Facts 148 4.1.6. Aspect 5: Knowledge of “That”, “How”, “What”, “Why” 151 4.1.7. Aspect 6: Representations of Knowledge 155 4.1.8. Aspect 7: Levels of Knowledge 158 4.1.9. Aspect 8: Value of Knowledge 161 4.2. Knowledge Increase 164 4.2.1. Definitions of Knowledge Increase 165 4.2.2. Aspect 1: Process of Knowledge Increase 168 4.2.3. Aspect 2: Increase of Personal Knowledge 171 4.2.4. Aspect 3: Increase of Tacit and Explicit Knowledge 174 4.2.5. Aspect 4: Increase of Intuition, Skills, and Facts 177 4.2.6. Aspect 5: Increasing Knowledge of “That”, “How”, “What”, “Why” 181 4.2.7. Aspect 6: Representations of Knowledge Increase 184 4.2.8. Aspect 7: Knowledge Increase at Different Levels 187 4.2.9. Aspect 8: Value of Knowledge Increase 191 4.3. Chapter Summary – Dimensions of the Inquiry 194 5. Problem Formulation 200 5.1. Approaching the Problem 200 5.2. Boundaries of the Problem 204 5.3. Stating the Problem 207 6. Descriptive Models 210 6.1. Definitions and Description 211 6.2. Learning Willingness 215 6.3. Learning Capability 224 6.4. Attention 232 6.5. Learning Ability 240 7. Simulative Models 245 7.1. Doctus KBS 247 7.2. The Knowledge Base of the Learning Willingness 255 7.3. The Knowledge Base of the Learning Capability 259 7.4. The Knowledge Base of the Attention 263 7.5. The Knowledge Base of the Learning Ability 267 ii Content 8. Conclusions 272 8.1. Main Findings 273 8.2. Ancillary Findings 278 8.3. Future Directions 281 9. Appendices 285 Appendix 1 Concepts Used in the Dissertation 286 Appendix 2 The Line of Discussion 287 Appendix 3 Case-Based Reasoning 288 Appendix 4 Informativity Calculation 289 Appendix 5 Value descriptions 289 References 292 Glossary of Terms and Acronyms 307 Name Index 309 iii Figures and Tables Figures and Tables List of Figures Figure 1: Family tree of the dissertation. ..................................................................... 3 Figure 2: The spiral of discussion: top-view. ............................................................... 4 Figure 3: The spiral of discussion: side-view .............................................................. 5 Figure 4: The cognitive sciences. ............................................................................... 14 Figure 5: The solution evolves from the component solutions. ................................. 60 Figure 6: Examining the problem with the increased knowledge. ............................. 62 Figure 7: The solution determines the problem. ........................................................ 63 Figure 8: Decision alternatives described. ................................................................. 68 Figure 9: Optimal, satisfactory and objectionless solutions....................................... 71 Figure 10: General conception of system. ................................................................. 77 Figure 11: Hierarchy of values – nothing like a pyramid. ......................................... 89 Figure 12: Reading in context. ................................................................................... 97 Figure 13: Generalized model of cognition. .............................................................. 99 Figure 14: Two exercises on attention. .................................................................... 108 Figure 15: Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs. ................................................................. 113 Figure 16: The Flow experience. ............................................................................. 120 Figure 17: The sorts of knowledge. ......................................................................... 148 Figure 18: Is spelling important? ............................................................................. 149 Figure 19: Knowledge and knowing – very different. ............................................. 151 Figure 20: Knowledge orientation of organizations................................................. 163 Figure 21: Absorbing a new schema. ....................................................................... 169 Figure 22: The Müller-Lyer illusion. ....................................................................... 180 Figure 23: Changing the discipline. ......................................................................... 188 Figure 24: Knowledge increase of the master and of the advanced. ........................ 189 Figure 25: Plains for examining knowledge. ........................................................... 198 Figure 26: Problem domain, problem nodes, and what is examined. ...................... 201 Figure 27: What is in and what is out? ..................................................................... 203 iv Figures and Tables Figure 28: The microstructure, the macrostructure and the global structure. .......... 214 Figure 29: Two judgments about the new knowledge. ............................................ 216 Figure 30: 3D picture of the Learning Willingness. ................................................. 222 Figure 31: The Learning Willingness model from above. ....................................... 223 Figure 32: Absorbing new knowledge. .................................................................... 225 Figure 33: Learning Capability by the number of schemata. .................................. 230 Figure 34: Learning Capability by the speed of changing relations. ....................... 230 Figure 35: Learning Capability by the meta-schemata. ........................................... 231 Figure 36: The cognitive dimension of Flow experience. ....................................... 233 Figure 37: Attention by number of schemata. .......................................................... 234 Figure 38: Attention by the speed of changing relations. ......................................... 235 Figure 39: Attention by meta-schemata. .................................................................. 236 Figure 40: 3-D picture of the Learning Ability. ....................................................... 243 Figure 41: The Learning Ability model from above. ............................................... 244 Figure 42: Refining ideas/hypotheses. ..................................................................... 246 Figure 43: Attributes and values in Doctus. ............................................................. 249 Figure 44: Rule-Based Graph in Doctus. ................................................................. 250 Figure 45: Complex rules in rule list (1D) view of Doctus...................................... 251 Figure 46: Rules in 2D view of Doctus. ................................................................... 252 Figure 47: Cases in Doctus. ..................................................................................... 253 Figure 48: From descriptive models to knowledge bases. ....................................... 253 Figure 49: Factors of learning willingness. .............................................................. 255 Figure 50: Complex rules of influence in 1D........................................................... 258 Figure 51: Complex rules of learning willingness in 2D. ........................................ 258 Figure 52: Factors of learning capability. ................................................................ 260 Figure 53: Complex rules of learning capability in 2D............................................ 262 Figure 54: Factors of attention. ................................................................................ 264 Figure 55: Complex rules of cognitive factor in 2D. ............................................... 265 Figure 56: Complex rules of attention in 1D. .......................................................... 266 Figure 57: Hierarchy of attributes of learning ability. ............................................. 268 Figure 58: Complex rules of learning ability in 2D. ................................................ 270 Figure 59: Knowledge base of learning ability exported – on-page reasoning. ....... 271 v Figures and Tables List of Tables Table 1: Demonstrative and plausible syllogism ....................................................... 18