A Grammar for Annotating Syntax, Semantics and Pragmatics of Written and Spoken Japanese for NLP Application Purposes Melanie Siegel 1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 2 Basic Japanese Phrase Structure ................................................................ 4 2.1 Head-subject phrase................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Head-complement Phrase........................................................................................... 5 2.3 Head-adjunct Phrase................................................................................................... 7 2.4 Coordinated structures................................................................................................ 9 2.5 Head-specifier constructions.................................................................................... 11 2.6 Head-marker constructions...................................................................................... 13 3 The Treatment of Subcategorization........................................................ 15 3.1 A type system of arguments..................................................................................... 19 3.2 Argument scrambling............................................................................................... 19 3.3 Zero pronominalization............................................................................................ 20 3.4 The status of subject arguments ............................................................................... 20 3.5 Generalizations......................................................................................................... 21 4 Verbal Types, Verbal Inflection and Verbal Structures ........................ 22 4.1 Verbal subcategorization types ................................................................................ 22 4.1.1 Intransitive verbs.............................................................................................. 23 4.1.2 Transitive verbs................................................................................................ 24 4.1.3 Copula verbs..................................................................................................... 26 4.1.4 Verbal noun subcategorization......................................................................... 27 4.2 Verbal inflectional types .......................................................................................... 28 4.3 Auxiliary constructions ............................................................................................ 34 4.4 The treatment of passive .......................................................................................... 37 4.5 Causative .................................................................................................................. 41 5 Nominal Structures: Linking Syntax, Semantics and Pragmatics ........ 45 5.1 Ordinary nouns......................................................................................................... 45 5.2 Pronouns................................................................................................................... 46 5.2.1 Personal pronouns............................................................................................ 48 5.2.2 Locative pronouns............................................................................................ 49 5.2.3 Demonstrative pronouns.................................................................................. 49 5.2.4 The reflexive jibun ........................................................................................... 49 5.3 Named entities.......................................................................................................... 54 5.4 Nominalizations ....................................................................................................... 55 5.4.1 Data analysis of nominalizations...................................................................... 58 ii 5.5 Temporal expressions............................................................................................... 63 5.6 Numeral classifiers................................................................................................... 65 5.6.1 Data: Distribution............................................................................................. 68 5.6.2 Semantic representations.................................................................................. 68 5.6.3 The analysis...................................................................................................... 70 5.6.4 Lexical types.................................................................................................... 70 5.6.5 The linker no .................................................................................................... 76 5.6.6 Examples: NumClPs as modifiers.................................................................... 77 5.6.7 Unary-branching phrase structure rule............................................................. 78 5.6.8 Examples: NumClPs as nouns.......................................................................... 79 5.7 Noun modification.................................................................................................... 79 5.8 Relative sentence constructions ............................................................................... 81 5.9 Pre-nominal adjectives............................................................................................. 83 6 Particles ....................................................................................................... 85 6.1 Co-occurrence of particles ....................................................................................... 86 6.2 The type hierarchy of Japanese particles.................................................................. 88 6.3 Case particles............................................................................................................ 89 6.3.1 The case particle ga.......................................................................................... 96 6.3.2 The case particle wo ......................................................................................... 98 6.3.3 The case particle ni......................................................................................... 101 6.3.4 Other case particles ........................................................................................ 102 6.4 Particles with semantic content.............................................................................. 102 6.4.1 Complementizers............................................................................................ 103 6.4.2 Genitive specifying no ................................................................................... 104 6.4.3 Modifying particles........................................................................................ 105 6.4.3.1 The noun modifying particle no................................................................. 105 6.4.3.2 Verb modifying particles............................................................................ 108 6.4.3.3 Particles of topicalization........................................................................... 113 6.4.4 Noun phrase conjunctions .............................................................................. 120 6.5 Omitted particles.................................................................................................... 123 6.6 Evaluation of case and modifying particles ........................................................... 125 6.7 Sentence particles................................................................................................... 125 7 Adverbs......................................................................................................127 8 Head-Initial Constructions in a Head-Final Language ........................130 8.1 The position of syntactic heads in Japanese........................................................... 130 8.2 Head-initial modification....................................................................................... 132 iii 8.2.1 Data ................................................................................................................ 132 8.2.1.1 Dake ........................................................................................................... 132 8.2.1.2 Bakari `only'............................................................................................... 134 8.2.1.3 Bakari and other forms meaning `about' ................................................... 134 8.2.1.4 Numeral classifiers..................................................................................... 136 8.2.2 Summary ........................................................................................................ 136 8.2.3 Analysis.......................................................................................................... 136 8.3 Head-initial complementation................................................................................ 137 8.3.1 Data ................................................................................................................ 137 8.3.2 Analysis.......................................................................................................... 140 9 Honorification...........................................................................................142