ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS): COMBINING SUB-REGIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION WITH CONFLICT RESOLUTION By CHARLES TIVE Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject INTERNATIONAL POLITICS at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF D J KOTZE October 2013 1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to the almighty God for the wisdom, strength and skill to accomplish this task. My appreciation goes to my lovely wife, Chigo for her care, support and encouragement throughout the five years of this study. Also, my boys; Shiloh, Lutor and Cedar who have been a source of joy and motivation to me. I am grateful to my Supervisor, Prof. Dirk Kotze for his support, assistance and guidance. Special thanks goes to Ms. Munaza Azhar; who thoroughly proof-read the entire thesis, making a series of grammatical and spelling corrections. My appreciation also goes to James Num and Funke Reis who assisted me with the collection of research data. Not forgetting, Dr. Emeka Okereke who provided some vital counselings. Also, credit goes to Major Kator Bur (Rtd) for his vital advice and Bro. Sam Kputu for his assistance at the initial stage of this study. The management of the African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF), Harare, Zimbabwe is worthy of my appreciations for allowing me the use of their library resources during the study. Time will fail me to mention all who contributed in one way or the other, but may the Almighty God bless you all. Charles Tive (May 13, 2013) 2 ECOWAS: COMBINING SUB-REGIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION WITH CONFLICT RESOLUTION. ABSTRACT The study utilizes regional integration theories like neo-functionalism, intergovernmentalism and new regionalism to analyse the formation, structure and transformation of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). It examines the role of ECOWAS as a sub-regional economic body and its transformation to a political and security body dealing with sub- regional conflict resolution. Though neo-functionalism is generally analysed in reference to European regional integration, the study attempts to draw some lessons from this theory. Also, new regionalism theory is utilized to examine the transformation of ECOWAS from a mere economic body to a security and political entity. Regionalism in West Africa was initially geared towards mere economic cooperation; however, the emergence of ECOWAS on the scene and its subsequent transformation witnessed several changes towards the path of security cooperation. Despite its involvement with the gigantic political and security related activities, a general evaluation of economic integration in West Africa depicts a low level of progress. The poor state of sub-regional economic integration shows that ECOWAS did not complete its regional economic integration agenda before diverting to other sectors of integration. 3 ECOWAS peacekeeping operations have been the dominant topic in sub- regional conflict resolution in West Africa. However, other forms of conflict resolution, including mediation, negotiation, conciliation and arbitration have been severally utilized. Also, in some of the cases, peacekeeping operations have been deployed only after other peaceful efforts have failed. ECOWAS peacekeeping operations are divergent operations with different forms and mandates. Therefore, they are better analysed under the framework of peacekeeping, peace-enforcement and peace-making theories. ECOWAS peacekeeping operations have been a subject of debate by proponents of the principle of non-interference and those of the responsibility to protect. The expediency of military intervention for humanitarian reasons as well as the prevention of genocide, war crimes and catastrophic loss of lives has questioned the principle of non-interference and validated the principle of responsibility to protect. 4 ACRONYMS AMIB African Mission in Burundi AMIS African Mission in Sudan AU African Union CEAO West African Economic Community CENSAD Community of Sahel and Saharan States CEPGL Economic Community of Great Lakes Countries EAC East African Community EBID ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development ECOMIL ECOMOG Mission in Liberia ECOMOG ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group ECOMOG ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EEC European Economic Community EGDC ECOWAS Gender Development Centre ERERA ECOWAS Regional Electricity Regulatory Authority EU European Union EYSDC ECOWAS Youth & Sports Development Centre GIABA Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development IOC Indian Ocean Commission LCBC Lake Chad Basin Commission LPA Lagos Plan of Action OAU Organization of African Unity OMVG Gambia River Development Organization OMVS Senegal River Development Organization PRSAO West African Regional Health Programme RAAF Regional Agency for Agriculture and Food SACU Southern African Customs Union SADC Southern African Development Community UAS Union of African States UDEAO Customs Union of West African States UEMOA West African Economic and Monetary Union UMOA ` Monetary Union of West Africa) UN United Nations WAHO West African Health Organization WAMA West African Monetary Agency WAMI West African Monetary Institute WAPP The West African Power Pool WARDA West African Rice Development Association WRCU Water Ressources Coordination Unit 5 Key terms: ECOWAS, Regional Integration, Conflict Resolution, Neo-Functionalism, Regionalism, New Regionalism, Peacekeeping, Peace enforcement, Peacemaking. West Africa, ECOMOG, Pan Africanism. 6 Student Number: 43114172 I declare that ECOWAS: COMBINING SUB-REGIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION WITH CONFLICT RESOLUTION is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete referencing. 11 October, 2013 SIGNATURE (Charles Tive) DATE 7 CONTENTS Acknowledgement………………………………………….. 2 Abstract…………………………………………………….. 3 Acronyms………………………………………………….. 5 1. Chapter One: Introduction 1.0 Background of the study………………………….…………. 11 1.1 Purpose of the study……………………………..……………. 18 1.2 Objectives of the study………………………………….. 20 1.3 Scope and limitation of study…………………….…………. 21 1.4 Theoretical, conceptual and methodological framework…… 23 1.5 Methodology……………………………………….. 25 1.5.1. Primary Sources……………………………………. 26 1.5.2. Secondary Sources……………………………….… 27 1.6 Chapter Outline…………………………………….…… 28 2. Chapter Two: Theoretical Framework 2.0 Introduction………………………………………… 31 2.1 Theoretical framework for regional integration…… 32 2.1.1. Classical theories of regional integration……… 33 2.1.2. Neo-Functionalism………………..……………… 38 2.1.3. Intergovernmentalism…………..……………… 43 2.1.4 Regionalism and New Regionalism…..…………… 47 2.2 Theoretical framework for conflict resolution.……… 55 2.2.1 Conflict: A conceptual analysis……………. 55 2.2.2 Overview of conflict resolution……………… 63 2.2.3 Theories of conflict and conflict resolution………………. 65 2.2.3.1 John Burton’s human needs theory…………………… .65 2.2.3.2 William Zartman’s ripe moment………………………. 67 2.2.3.3 The macro theories…………………………………… 70 2.2.3.4 The behavioural theories……………………………… 72 2.2.3.5 The enemy system theory……………………………… 75 2.2.4 Forms of conflict resolution…………….. 78 2.2.4.1 Mediation…………………….. 80 2.2.4.2 Negotiation………………………… 81 2.2.4.3 Conciliation……………………… 84 2.2.4.4 Arbitration……………………….. 85 2.2.5 Theoretical analysis of peacemaking……….. 87 2.2.6 Theoretical analysis of peacekeeping……….. 93 2.2.6.1 Traditional peacekeeping………….… 98 2.2.6.2 Second generation peacekeeping……..… 99 2.2.6.3 Expanded peacekeeping………… 100 2.2.6.4 Peace restoration by partnership……… 102 2.2.6.5 Multinational peace restoration…….... 102 2.2.7 Reports on Peacekeeping Reform…………………………. 103 2.2.7.1 The Brahimi Report of 2000………………………… 104 8 2.2.7.2 The Prodi Report of 2008……………………………. 106 2.2.8 Theoretical analysis of peace enforcement…… 108 2.3 Chapter Summary……………………………………… 111 3. Chapter Three: Regional Integration in West Africa 3.0 Introduction……………………………. 113 3.1 Pan-Africanism and regionalism in Africa………….. 114 3.1.1 Historical foundation of Pan-Africanism…………. 114 3.1.2 Ideological foundation of Pan-Africanism………... 120 3.1.3 Regionalism in Africa……………….….................. 125 3.2 Regional integration in West Africa……… 135 3.3 The formation of sub-regional bodies in West Africa... 140 3.5 Chapter Summary……………………………………… 145 4. Chapter Four: The Formation, Structure and Growth of ECOWAS 4.0 Introduction…………………………………. 147 4.1 The formation of ECOWAS…………………... 150 4.2 The ECOWAS Institutions……………….. 153 4.2.1 The ECOWAS Commission……………… 153 4.2.2 The Community Parliament……………… 154 4.2.3 The Community Court of Justice……………. 155 4.2.4 ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development 155 4.3. ECOWAS Specialized Agencies…………….… 156 4.3.1 West African Health Organization (WAHO)… 157 4.3.2 West African Monetary Agency (WAMA)…. 158 4.3.3 West African Monetary Institute (WAMI)……. 159 4.3.4 ECOWAS Youth & Sports Development Centre 161 4.3.5 ECOWAS Gender Development Centre 162 4.3.6 Water Resources Coordination Unit ….. 163 4.3.7 ECOWAS Brown Card………….…. 164 4.3.8 The West African Power Pool (WAPP)… 164 4.3.9 The Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism (GIABA)………… 165 4.3.10 West African Regional Health Program 168 4.4 Economic and political developments in ECOWAS. 168 4.5 ECOWAS’s initiative in regional integration………… 176 4.6 Chapter Summary…………………………………… 181 5. Chapter Five: ECOWAS’s approach