TWO CENTURIES OF US MILITARY OPERATIONS IN LIBERIA Challenges of Resistance and Compliance Niels Hahn Two Centuries of US Military Operations in Liberia Challenges of Resistance and Compliance By Dr. Niels Stephan Cato Hahn Air University Press Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama Director, Air University Press Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Lt Col Darin M. Gregg Names: Hahn, Niels, 1973– author. | Curtis E. LeMay Center for Managing Editor Doctrine Development and Education, issuing body. Dr. Christopher Rein Title: Two centuries of US military operations in Liberia: chal- lenges of resistance and compliance / Niels Stephan Cato Project Editor Hahn. Other titles: Two centuries of U.S. military operations Dr. Stephanie Havron Rollins in Liberia James Howard Description: Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Copy Editors Press; Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Sandi Davis Education, [2020] | “Published by Air University Press in July Carolyn Underwood 2019”—CIP galley, title page verso. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: This book reviews the his- Cover Art, Book Design, and Illustrations tory of the United States-Liberia relations from the early Daniel Armstrong 1820s to 2015, with particular attention paid to the role of the L. Susan Fair US armed forces. Contrary to most literature on the genesis and development of Liberia, this book demonstrates how US Composition and Prepress Production military power has been the primary influence shaping Libe- Nedra Looney ria’s history. This includes the role played by the US military in Distribution the founding of Liberia, the protection of the country during the Diane Clark European formal colonial era, multiple covert operations in securing US-friendly administrations in Liberia, and direct military interventions when necessary to secure American interests in the region”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2019051142 (print) | ISBN 9781585663040 (paperback) | ISBN 9781585663040 (Adobe PDF) Subjects: LCSH: Liberia—Politics and government. | Liberia— Air University Press History. | Liberia—Foreign relations—United States. | United 600 Chennault Circle, Building 1405 States—Foreign relations—Liberia. | Liberia—Military rela- Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6010 tions—United States. | United States—Military relations— Liberia. | Liberia—Foreign relations—China. | China—Foreign https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/ relations—Liberia. AUPress/ Classification: LCC DT631.5 .H36 2020 (print) | LCC DT631.5 Facebook: (ebook) | DDC https://www.facebook.com/ AirUnivPress and Twitter: https://twitter.com/aupress Published by Air University Press in March 2020 Disclaimer Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or Air University Press implied within are solely those of the author and do not neces- sarily represent the views of the Department of Defense, the United States Air Force, the Air Education and Training Command, the Air University, or any other US government agency. Cleared for public release: distribution unlimited. This book and other Air University Press publications are available electronically at the AU Press website: https://www.airuniversity .af.edu/AUPress. Contents Foreword v About the Author vii Acknowledgment ix Introduction xi 1 The Early History of Liberia: Expansionism and Slavery in America 1 Establishment of American Colonies in West Africa 12 Liberian Independence 18 Great Power Rivalry in West Africa 25 2 Liberia and the Pan- African Movement: Early Pan- Africanism 33 Firestone in Liberia 37 The Liberian Labor Crisis 41 Liberal Expansion Under President Tubman 49 Countering Socialism and Pan- Africanism 54 3 Tolbert and the New Policy Direction: Moving Toward Socialism 77 Revising the Open Door Policy 81 The New Political and Economic Order 84 US Responses to Tolbert’s Policies 92 4 Samuel K. Doe: From Friend to Foe: The People’s Redemption Council 105 Internal Conflicts and External Relations 109 The NPFL and the Internal Splits 118 ECOMOG and the Interim Government 126 Intervention and the Killing of Doe 131 5 Intensification of the Armed Conflicts: Antagonistic Forces 143 Toward the General Elections 1997 150 The NPP and Liberia’s Oil Resources 159 Formation of LURD and UN Sanctions 165 The Removal of Charles Taylor 175 iii CONTENTS 6 The US- led UN Intervention: The Theory and Policy behind UNMIL 191 The UNMIL Experience 203 Moving Toward China 210 United States and China in Liberia 220 Conclusion 239 Abbreviations 251 Map of Liberia 257 Appendix A 259 Appendix B 261 Appendix C 263 Appendix D 265 Appendix E 267 Bibliography 283 Index 345 iv Foreword When I first arrived in Liberia during the war in 2002 to work for the humanitarian organization Médecins Sans Frontièrs as a non­­­ medical coordinator, my prior knowledge of the country and the conflict in Liberia had been gained from reports published by estab- lished institutions and media outlets. From these sources, I gained the impression that this was a civil war that started around 1990. The general picture was clear. The people in the Liberian government headed by Charles Taylor were the “bad guys.” The international community was the “good guys,” seeking to help and protect the civil- ian population. The rebels, Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), fell somewhere in between. While living and working in Monrovia, I soon came to realize that the conflict was primarily between the Liberian government and the United States government. France was also involved, seeking to ex- pand its sphere of influence from the neighboring Ivory Coast into Liberia. To the west, in Sierra Leone, the Revolutionary United Front had challenged the balance of power, with external covert support. Several military interventions had taken place, including the deploy- ment of a large UN peacekeeping force. In addition to this, Britain had also deployed its soldiers to secure British interests. To the north, Guinea was hosting and training the LURD rebels near the border to Liberia. Most other countries in the region, such as Burkina Faso, Ghana, Libya, and Nigeria, were also involved in the war in Liberia, along with several other European and Asian countries. It was often difficult to know who supported whom, and alliances shifted over time. It was clear, however, that the war in Liberia was not a “civil war,” as most commonly described. It was an international war fought primarily on Liberian soil. Severe inequalities within Li- berian society, combined with poverty, class divisions, and religious and ethnic groupings, made the country vulnerable to destabilization— which provided an opportunity for local actors to work in close col- laboration with foreign powers—and challenged US influence in Liberia. The struggle for power among foreign nations in the West Afri- can region is not new, and over the past two centuries, the United States has frequently sent its troops to Liberia to regain control of the country. Through diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military means, the United States has set limits up on foreign powers in Liberia, v FOREWORD disciplined or removed Liberian governments, and enforced rela- tive peace in the country. Liberia is the country in Africa where the United States has the most extended history of military engagement, and each intervention is layered on the experience of previous interventions. Over the years, the interventions have become more comprehensive and sophisti- cated, and Liberia can be considered an essential case for the general study of US military interventions in Africa. Niels Hahn vi About the Author Niels Hahn holds a PhD in Development Studies. Since 1995, he has worked in the fields of development aid and humanitarian assis- tance and researched the root causes of poverty, neoliberalism, armed conflicts, and underdevelopment. Working in numerous countries including Afghanistan, Britain, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, and Tanzania, he has primarily focused his research on US military intervention strategies concerning broader aspects of international politics and economics. Because of the long history of US military, economic, and cultural interventions in Liberia, this country became Hahn’s primary case study for analyzing the modalities of US interventions in general. vii viii Acknowledgment This book would not have materialized without the contributions, support, and local knowledge of hundreds of Liberians. Some of the contributions are from 167 formal interviews, including former pres- idents, heads of transitional governments, ministers, military officers, politicians, ex-­­­combatants, academics, civil servants, leaders of rebel groups, child soldiers, leaders of religious and ethnic groups, civil so- ciety leaders, and family members of government officials killed in the war. Informal discussions with Liberians at small coffee shops and with journalists, students, vendors, business owners, members of political parties, ordinary professionals, unemployed people, mercenaries— and many more—have also contributed significantly to this book. These people have shared their life experiences and knowledge. The hardship and suffering experienced by most people in Liberia are al- most unimaginable; their stories remind us that each must do what is possible according to ability, to ensure that everyone can live in peace and security. Special thanks to Professor Alfredo Saad-­­­Filho for his consistent support for this research. Without his help, this study would not have