Films by Kenyan Women Directors as National Allegories by Jacqueline Kubasu Ojiambo Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisors Prof. Louise Green Dr. Dawid De Villiers April 2019 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own original work; that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated); that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third-party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. April 2019 Copyright © 2019 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This dissertation examines how selected Kenyan fiction films directed by women filmmakers intervene in national politics. To achieve this, I employ Frederic Jameson’s concept of ‘national allegory’ to understand how within the context of the Kenyan political situation, the private stories of individuals can be read allegorically to refer beyond their immediate circumstances to wider political concerns. Although these films are predominantly realist in narrative form, I propose that reading them as national allegories allows their wider political implications to emerge. The films also draw on local traditions of allegory as a complex didactic form. I critically analyse the films to explore the different allegorical shapes each film takes and how these allegorical shapes, in turn, resonate with the larger national story. I complexify Jameson’s theory, which suggests that all third world texts are to be read as national allegories, and demonstrate that they can, in fact, be interpreted at both a realist and allegorical level. The early films Saikati and The Battle of The Sacred Tree investigate the idea of returning to the past. This discussion contributes to African cinema’s ‘return to the source’ movement, which did not account for the complications women face on their return to the past. I argue that for women, the return is fraught with challenges that must constantly be negotiated and renegotiated. In the next set of more contemporary films, I demonstrate how the daily private lives of the characters illuminate broader social-political concerns. The more overtly allegorical, Soul Boy, together with the social realist Killer Necklace, Project Daddy and Leo, highlight the conditions of the marginalized in the society and decry poor governance. Finally, I explore From a Whisper and Something Necessary that fictionalise real traumatic national events. These two, mix real footage and fictional narrative to provide a path for engagement with broader political implications. I will show how through various imaginations, all the filmmakers transcend their present realities and imagine a more desirable nation. My argument is that although these films can be read as realist films, reading them as national allegories foregrounds the diverse ways Kenyan women filmmakers engage with national politics. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Hierdie verhandeling ondersoek die wyse waarop die Keniaanse fiksie films deur vroue-regisseurs hier ter sprake nasionale politieke kwessies aanspreek. Met verwysing na Frederic Jameson se konsep van ‘national allegory’ ondersoek ek hoe in die konteks van die Keniaanse politieke situasie, die privaat stories van individue allegories gelees kan word om te verwys, nie net na die hulle onmiddelike omgewing nie, maar verder ook na wyer politieke kwessies. Alhoewel hierdie films hoofsaaklik in die modus van realisme funksioneer, voer ek wel aan dat om hulle as ‘national allegories’ te lees, verdere politieke implikasies na vore bring. Die films werk ook binne die konteks van lokale tradisies van allegorie as ’n komplekse didaktiese vorm. Dus analiseer ek die films om die verskeie maniere waarop allegorie in elke geval betrek word, asook die wyse waarop hierdie allegoriese vorme tot die breër nasionale storie spreek, te ondersoek. Dit behels onder andere om verdere kompliksiteit to verleen aan Jameson se teorie, wat suggereer dat alle derde- wêreldse tekste as ‘national allegories’ gelees behoort te word; ek demonstreer dat hierdie films eerder op beide die realistiese én die allegoriese vlakke funksioneer. Die vroeë films, Saikati en The Battle of the Sacred Tree, ondersoek die idee van ’n terugkeer na die verlede. Hierdie ontleding dra by tot ‘African cinema’ se ‘return to the source’ beweging, wat welliswaar nie die probleme wat spesifiek vir vroue hiermee gepaard sou gaan, aangespreek het nie. Ek voer aan dat sodanige terugkeer vir vroue vol uitdagings is wat immer weer aangespreek en deurdink moet word. Deur middel van die volgende stel films demonstreer ek hoe die daaglikse private lewens van die karakters breër sosio-politiese kwessies belig. Die ooglopend allegoriese Soul Boy, asook die sosiaal-realistiese Killer Necklace, Project Daddy and Leo, verskaf ’n blik op die situasie van diegene wat in die samelewing gemarginaliseer is en kritiseer swak staatsbestuur. Ten slotte bespreek ek From a Whisper en Something Necessary as films wat traumatise nasionale gebeure fiksionaliseer. Albei films betrek dokumentêre beeldmateriaal by ’n fiksionele narratief om sodoende met breër politiese implikasies te handel. Ek wil aandui hoe al hierdie filmmakers op uitlopende verbeeldingsryke wyses verby hul huidige omstandinghede kyk om ’n meer wenslike nasie op te roep. Dus, ten spyte van die feit dat al hierdie films wel op die vlak van realisme funksioneer, voer ek aan dat om hulle as allegories te lees die verkeie wyses waarop Keniaanse vroue-filmmakers met nasionale politiek in gesprek tree, na vore bring. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I owe a debt of gratitude to several individuals who have made this project possible. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisors, Prof. Louise Green and Dr. Dawid De Villiers, your invaluable insights and criticism have shaped this dissertation from a simple concept note to a full draft. Your intellectual generosity, patience and commitment to this project are gifts to me. Thank you. I appreciate the scholarship awarded to me through the Partnership for Africa’s Next Generation of Academics (PANGeA), in conjunction with the Gerda Henkel Foundation. I remain grateful to my alma mater, University of Nairobi whose affiliations with PANGeA made this project possible. I am indebted to my referees Prof. Peter Wasamba, Dr. Tom Odhiambo and Dr. Godwin Siundu for believing in me. To the filmmakers, Wanjiru Kinyanjui, Judy Kibinge, Wanuri Kahiu, Jinna Mutune and Hawa Essuman thank you for facilitating easy access to the films. Special thanks to Kibinge and Kinyanjui for the enthusiasm you have shown regarding this project and for your quick responses to my questions about Kenyan cinema. I am thankful to the English Studies department at Stellenbosch University for a vibrant postgraduate programme. Thank you, Prof. Tina Steiner, and Prof. Viljoen Shaun for organizing both fun and intellectually stimulating events. I am grateful for the educative weekly departmental seminars. I thank members of the East African and Indian Ocean reading group, special gratitude to Prof. Annie Gagiano, Prof. Grace Musila and Prof. Tina Steiner for providing a great space for us to exchange ideas. I extend my gratitude to Dr. Riaan Oppelt and Dr. Wamuwi Mbao for allowing me to learn from you and your students. Heartfelt gratitude to my life partner, Aldrin Ojiambo for your love, constant encouragement and unwavering support. Thank you for being a wonderful baba na mama to our sons during my study leave. To Were and Chinua thanks for your love and support and for always reminding me about iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za life’s essentials. The good cheer you exude brightens my days. To the Ikhabi family, thanks for cheering me on and for the wonderful role models you are to me. To my sister friends Cathy, Phyllis, Wambui, Debby, Jackie N, Marizin, Lily, Carol Mungai and Hilda Oburu your constant messages of encouragement and prayers kept me going. Marciana Were, Asante Mtenje, Doseline Kiguru and Hellen Venganai thank you for receiving me so warmly. You made my arrival at Stellenbosch and transition into student life seamless, I appreciate your continued interest in my research and general welfare. My reading room buddies - Saibu, Amon, Mary, Charmaine, Alfred, Nabulya and Sallek, I am grateful for discussions both convivial and pointed. To my cohort mates thank you for the comradeship. Special thanks to Maureen Amimo, Neema Laizer, Jacqueline Chelagat, Stephen Temitope, Amon Mwiine, Lizelle Smit and Serah Kasembeli for your insightful comments on this project. To God Almighty for grace and strength throughout this journey. Versions of parts of this dissertation have been published or presented at conferences as the following: Ojiambo, Jacqueline. “The Re-incarnation of the Nyawawa Myth in Hawa Essuman’s Soul Boy” presented at the University of the Western Cape, Post-Graduate Conference May 22-23 2018 Ojiambo, Jacqueline. “Oral Traditions in Wanjiru Kinyanjui’s The Battle of The Sacred Tree” presented at the 4th NEST International Conference University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 22-24 March 2018. Ojiambo, Jacqueline. “Narrating Post-Election