“DISNEY IS THE TIFFANY’S AND I AM THE WOOLWORTH’S OF THE BUSINESS”: A CRITICAL RE-ANALYSIS OF THE BUSINESS PHILOSOPHIES, PRODUCTION VALUES AND STUDIO PRACTICES OF ANIMATOR-PRODUCER PAUL HOULTON TERRY A dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Wynn Gerald Hamonic School of Arts, Brunel University June 2011 Abstract of the Dissertation ―Disney is the Tiffany‘s and I am the Woolworth‘s of the Business‖: A Critical Re-Analysis of the Business Philosophies, Production Values and Studio Practices of Animator-Producer Paul Houlton Terry by Wynn Gerald Hamonic Doctor of Philosophy Brunel University, 2011 Animator-producer Paul Houlton Terry has been portrayed as having little passion for the animation he produced and being more concerned with making a profit than producing entertaining cartoons with high production values. The purpose of the dissertation is to re- evaluate Terry‘s legacy to animated cartooning by analyzing his business philosophies, production values, and studio practices. Application of four psychodynamic factors to the early life and career of Terry, 1887-1929, found that his economic decision making was characterized by: an external locus of control, risk- averse financial behaviour, extreme saving behaviour through precaution, and shrewd money management practices. Based on Terry‘s historical responses to twelve major economic, technological, or institutional forces of change for the period 1929-1955, the psychodynamic factors were found to provide accurate explanations for his studio practices and production decisions. There was no evidence to support the conclusion that three early career disappointments undermined Terry‘s intrinsic motivation to create animated cartoons. Rather, Terry‘s lack of risk taking, external locus of control, tight studio production schedule, desire to compete with neighbour studio Fleischer, difficulty in separating financial rewards from creative processes in animation, and practice of undertaking surveillance measures on staff may have undermined his and his studio‘s creativity. Archival research found Terry to possess strong passions for and to have made significant creative contributions to the field of animation. i Biographical research found that Terry retained a stable nucleus of highly talented artists who dedicated a significant portion of their working careers to the studio. An analysis of the cel aesthetics of a random sample of animated cartoons produced during the years 1930-1955 found that Terry created animated cartoons with above average cel aesthetics when compared to the other studios thereby supporting an inference that Terry was motivated to producing quality crafted animation. Further research is suggested into the role psychodynamic factors and economic decision-making play in the film production process and a clarification of Terry‘s legacy to the field of animated cartoons. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………….i Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………....ix Declaration………………………………………………………………………………………...x I. INTRODUCTION A. Of Mice and Magic (1980): The First Comprehensive Source Book on United States Cartoon Studios during the ―Golden Age of AmericanAnimation‖………………………………………………………….. 1 B. Critical Opinions Held by Scholars and Writers on the Life and Career Work of Paul H. Terry.……………………………………………………………. 2 1. 1980 to Present: Maltin and Afterwards……………………………………. 2 2. 1928 – 1979: Before Maltin………………………….………….....……….…. 8 3. Reasons for Differing Critical Opinions on the Life and Career Work of Paul H. Terry……………………………………………………………. 12 C. A Closer Look at Terry‘s ―Woolworth‘s‖ Quote…………………….……………. 15 1. Interpretations………………………………………………………………….. 15 2. Biographical Comparisons………………………………………………….…. 16 (a) Paul Terry and Frank W. Woolworth……………………………………. 16 (b) Walt Disney and Charles Lewis Tiffany………………………………… 17 3. Critical Re-Analysis of the Quote…………………………………………..…. 17 D. Re-Analysis of the Life and Career of Paul Terry: Importance and Necessity……. 17 E. Models of Film Production and Practice: Methods of Critical Analysis………….. 20 1. Traditional Models: Auteurism, the Great Man Theory and Masterpiece Histories…………………………………………………………………………. 20 2. Contemporary Models: Unified Modes of Film Practice and the ―Theory of Technological Innovation‖…………………………………………….…….. 23 3. Problems with the Contemporary Models of Film Production and Practice…. 29 F. Economic Practices Operating as Received Norms of Managers…………………. 31 1. Unified Model of Film Production: Recognition of the Necessity to Analyze Economic Practices of Managers…………………………………... 31 2. Economic Decisions of Managers as Critical to a Firm‘s Success……………. 32 3. Economic Practices of Managers: Definition………………………………... 33 G. Exploring Individual Differences in Economic Decision Making Through Explorations and Analyses of Underlying Psychodynamics……………………… 35 1. Economic Decisions of Managers on Same Issue Will Vary…………………. 35 2. Behavioural Economics: the Study of the Psychological Processes Underlying Economic Decision Making…………………………………..… 36 3. Challenges to Neo-classical Economic Theory and Homo-Economicus………. 37 H. Research Methodology…………………………………………………………. 41 iii II. ECONOMIC PRACTICES OPERATING AS RECEIVED NORMS FOR MANAGERS AND THE PSYCHODYNAMICS OF PAUL TERRY‘S ECONOMIC DECISION-MAKING………………………………………………………… 51 A. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….. 51 B. Locus of Control…………………………………………………………………….. 51 1. General Concepts: Definition and Origination of Term………………………. 51 2. Paul Houlton Terry: Development of Locus of Control……………………… 52 a) Birth to Early Childhood, 1887-1900: The Effect of Birth Order and Parental Antecedents on Terry‘s Locus of Control………………………… 53 b) Early Adulthood, the Newspaper Career, and the Move to New York City, 1900 – 1914: The Effect of the 1906 Earthquake on Terry‘s Locus of Control………………………………………………………………………. 55 c) Beginnings of a New Career in Animated Cartooning, Life in the U.S. Army, and the Fables Studio Years, 1914 – 1929: The Effect of the 1918 Spanish Influenza on Terry‘s Locus of Control……………………………. 59 C. Economic Behaviour: Saving………………………………………………………... 68 1. General Concepts………………………………………………………………... 68 2. Purposes of Saving………………………………………………………………. 70 3. Types of Extreme Savers……………………………………………………….. 71 4. Terry as a Shrewd Money Manager…………………………………………….. 74 5. Alternate Views on Saving Behaviour………………………………………….. 76 6. Causes of and Factors Underlying Extreme Saving Behaviour……………….. 77 a) Psychological: Anxiety, Economic Insecurity and Locus of Control………. 77 b) Economic and Life Events: Economic Change, Unemployment and Financial Hardship………………………………………………………….. 79 c) Family Influences, Moral and Cognitive Development and Modelling….. 81 d) Other Factors: Social and Demographic Predictors……………………….. 81 7. Behavioural Responses and Coping Mechanisms Associated With Extreme Saving Behaviour…………………………………….......................... 83 a) Consumer Research and Self-Control……………………………………… 83 b) Conservation of Resources…………………………………………………. 84 c) Learned Resourcefulness…………………………………………………… 85 D. Risk-Taking Behaviour……………………………………………………………… 86 1. Definition………………………………………………………………………... 86 2. Risk-Aversion and Individual Characteristics…………………………………. 87 a) Risk aversion and gender……………………………….…………………... 87 b) Risk aversion and age……………………………………………………….. 87 c) Risk aversion and race/ethnicity………………………..………………….. 87 d) Risk aversion and education………………………………..………………. 88 e) Risk aversion and locus of control…………………………………………. 88 3. Risk-Taking Behaviour, Financial Saving, and Consumer Decisions………… 89 4. The Risk-Taking Behaviour of Paul Terry…………………………………….. 89 E. Economic Practices Operating as Received Norms for Managers………………… 92 1. Major Psychodynamic Components Underlying Economic Practices………….. 92 2. Financial Transactions: Elements……………………………………………….. 93 F. Economic Practices Operating as Received Norms for Paul Terry…………………. 94 iv III. PSYCHODYNAMIC ANALYSES OF PAUL TERRY‘S ECONOMIC DECISION MAKING AND MANAGERIAL RESPONSES TO THE MAJOR ECONOMIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND INSTITUTIONAL FORCES THAT SHAPED ANIMATED CARTOONING DURING THE GOLDEN AGE OF AMERICAN ANIMATION, 1929-1955………………………………………………………………….. 107 A. Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 107 B. Economic Forces of Change………………………………………………………. 107 1. The Great Depression, Hollywood Economics and the Slump in the Motion Picture Industry, 1929-1935…………………………………………. 107 2. Rising Costs of Animated Film Production…………………………………… 113 3. Animated Shorts Do Not Generate Box Office Money for Film Studios…….. 119 4. The Rise of the Full-Length Animated Feature Film…………...…………….. 120 C. Technological Forces of Change…………………………………………………... 123 1. Movement Towards Colorized Shorts………………………………………… 123 2. Innovation and Experimentation: Stereoptical Process and the Multiplane Camera…………………………………………………………….. 126 3. Introduction of Television……………………………………………………. 129 D. Institutional Forces of Change……………………………………………………. 131 1. Exhibition and Distribution Problems With Short Subjects………………….. 131 2. Shorts Given Little Attention by Film Critics…………………...……………. 132 3. Poor Entertainment Quality of Animated Cartoon Shorts……….…………… 133 4. The Rise of the Unions and the Labour Movement…………………………… 138 5. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act and the End of Block Booking……………….. 143 E. Conclusions………………………………………………………………………… 146 IV. EXPLORING THE ARTISTIC AMBITIONS, CREATIVE MOTIVATIONS, AND ANIMATED CARTOON AESTHETICS OF PAUL HOULTON TERRY………… 156 A. Introduction: