University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 5-2017 Investigating Country Identity and Citizen Diplomacy: The Case of Cultural Mediators in Vietnam Lindsey M. Bier University of Tennessee, Knoxville, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss Recommended Citation Bier, Lindsey M., "Investigating Country Identity and Citizen Diplomacy: The Case of Cultural Mediators in Vietnam. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 2017. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/4388 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Lindsey M. Bier entitled "Investigating Country Identity and Citizen Diplomacy: The Case of Cultural Mediators in Vietnam." I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, with a major in Communication and Information. Candace L. White, Major Professor We have read this dissertation and recommend its acceptance: Maureen Taylor, L. Amber Roessner, Liem T. Tran Accepted for the Council: Dixie L. Thompson Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School (Original signatures are on file with official studentecor r ds.) Investigating Country Identity and Citizen Diplomacy: The Case of Cultural Mediators in Vietnam A Dissertation Presented for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree The University of Tennessee, Knoxville Lindsey M. Bier May 2017 Copyright © 2017 by Lindsey M. Bier All rights reserved. ii DEDICATION Cho người dân Việt Nam – Mong rằng người Việt Nam và người Mỹ có thể luôn sánh vai cùng nhau trong tình hữu nghị và hợp tác để thúc đẩy hòa bình trong cộng đồng quốc tế. To the people of Vietnam – May Vietnamese and Americans walk together always in friendship and cooperation to promote peace in the international community. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I thank the citizens of Vietnam who have taught me that international friendships make the world a better place. I thank my participants in Ho Chi Minh City, Ha Noi, and Da Nang who entrusted me with their stories and perspectives. I thank my research assistants who invested time and effort into this dissertation by interpreting and translating, scheduling meetings, and providing cultural insights throughout the research process. I am deeply grateful for and humbled by Vietnamese hospitality and kindness. I thank the professors on my dissertation committee. Dr. Candace White, my committee chair, helped me discover my scholarly interests and provided mentorship throughout my time at the University of Tennessee. I appreciate her willingness to share her insights into the public diplomacy field and to offer detailed feedback on this dissertation and on other teaching and research projects. Dr. Maureen Taylor helped focus the theoretical perspective of this dissertation and also provided guidance that prepared me for the next step in my career. Dr. Amber Roessner, through both this dissertation and other studies, taught me to approach research inquiries from various rigorous and relevant perspectives. Finally, Dr. Liem Tran strengthened this dissertation with his methodological expertise and knowledge of Vietnamese language and culture. Along with my dissertation committee, I thank Dr. Catherine Luther and Dr. Abbey Levenshus for supporting my doctoral studies in invaluable ways. I also thank my professors at Northern Illinois University, specifically Dr. Taylor Atkins and Dr. Gary Burns, for advising me as I prepared for doctoral work. I thank my high school teachers who instilled my love of learning and my youth leaders who sparked my global curiosity. iv I thank my colleagues and friends at the University of Tennessee, especially those in my cohort. We have suffered and celebrated together. I also thank my officemates in “the dungeon” and in the School of Advertising & Public Relations for providing encouragement and comic relief at every hour of the day and night. Further, I thank my students, who inspire me to become great by bringing out the greatness in others. According to a Vietnamese proverb, “A day full of traveling brings a basketful of learning.” Thus, I am indebted to the donors of the W. K. McClure Scholarship and the Susanne A. Roschwalb Grant for International Study and Research for funding my dissertation travel. Their generous financial support made this research possible. I am also deeply appreciative of my family. When I wanted to explore the world and seek new learning opportunities, my parents, Dennis and Jackie, and my siblings, Ross and Larissa, encouraged me to pursue my dreams. Throughout my doctoral studies, my mother has ensured my supply of coffee and encouraging notes was ever abundant. My dad has modeled hard work and taught me that when someone tells you something cannot be done, you work hard to prove them wrong. I cannot thank my family enough. I also extend a special thank you to the U.S. veterans of the Vietnam War who have become my East Tennessee family. Their sacrificial leadership exemplifies that our purpose in this world is to give and to serve. Finally, believing every good gift comes from above, I conclude my acknowledgments by thanking God for giving me the opportunity to pursue knowledge. My prayer is to live worthy of my calling. Thank you. v ABSTRACT This dissertation investigates country identity and citizen diplomacy by examining cultural mediators’ perceptions of and communication about their own country during people-to-people exchanges. A cultural mediator is a non-state citizen diplomat who communicates with foreigners in business, educational, or social environments to reconcile cultural differences. The country identity constructs examined herein are physical appeal, economic appeal, culture and heritage, political appeal, human capital, social appeal, and emotional appeal. A non-Western, one-party, postwar, developing country, Vietnam provides a rich context for exploring this dissertation’s phenomena. To many Americans, Vietnam is a war. Vietnam, however, is a country undergoing economic, technological, and social change. With its progressing role in Southeast Asia and geographic proximity to China, Vietnam is critical to U.S. interests, and Vietnam’s leaders favor improved trade initiatives and military-to-military ties. However, a divisive wartime history and disparate cultural values and political systems complicate U.S.-Vietnam diplomatic relations. This dissertation employs a survey (N = 368) and interviews (N = 27) with Vietnamese cultural mediators and participation observation hours (N = 27) of citizen diplomacy activities between Vietnamese and foreigners in Vietnam. While supporting the influence of heritage and culture, human capital, social appeal, and physical appeal on cultural mediators’ positive feelings toward their own country, the results expand the country identity theoretical framework by adding a family variable to the heritage and culture scale and a work ethic variable to the human capital scale. vi The results reveal economic appeal as a positive significant predictor of citizen diplomats’ amount of communication with foreigners about country identity. Cultural mediators perceive mutuality in citizen diplomacy: Foreigners learn to navigate a new cultural system, while cultural mediators develop intercultural communication skills and expand their international network as a step toward integration into the global economy. This dissertation offers evidence that relational communication during citizen diplomacy acknowledges cultural differences to highlight favorable aspects of country identity. This dissertation provides strategies for promoting the nation brand to domestic publics and stimulating collaboration with foreign publics. The theoretical implications extend beyond Vietnam with insight into how citizen-directed grassroots diplomacy networks advance cultural alliances through communication structure and synergy. vii PREFACE This dissertation is the original work of the author, Lindsey M. Bier. The Institutional Review Board at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville approved this research prior to data collection. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 Vietnam as the Dissertation Context............................................................................... 5 Overview of Research Process........................................................................................ 7 CHAPTER TWO Literature Review ................................................................................ 10 Defining Public Diplomacy .......................................................................................... 11 Three Frameworks of Diplomacy ............................................................................. 12 Scholarly Approaches to Public Diplomacy ................................................................. 15 International Relations Approach ............................................................................. 16 Marketing