The Sky of Knowledge A Study of the Ethnoastronomy of the Aboriginal People of Australia Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy by Serena Fredrick Department of Archaeology and Ancient History University of Leicester 2008 Abstract The Sky of Knowledge: A Study of the Ethnoastronomy of the Aboriginal people of Australia Serena Fredrick Aboriginal Australia encompasses a diverse range of cultures, each of which has developed in a distinct landscape and environment. Most cultures cultivate their own astronomy as a response to the surrounding environmental conditions. This work is a study of the accounts of Aboriginal astronomy that have been recorded over the last two hundred years. An in- depth review of the main contributors to the subject, their unique biases and their influence over Aboriginal astronomy is examined. Many of the common perceptions of Aboriginal astronomy are based on stories that were recorded over a hundred years ago and have been misinterpreted several times during the course of the last century. These errors are investigated and corrected. In total, the ethnographers and anthropologists recorded over five hundred stories and they are brought together here for the first time. Stories originate from every region in Australia and cover many objects and phenomena in the night sky. Each story is classified according to the object, location and source, allowing a direct comparison of related material. The aim of this research is to demonstrate where the differences and similarities arise within three distinct areas of Australia; the tropical north, the central desert and the temperate south. The analysis of the material focuses on each object individually and how it was perceived in each of the three environmental zones. The main themes discussed centre around the characters involved in each of the stories, how they are depicted in the sky and in the creation of Aboriginal constellations. The results of the analysis demonstrate the close connection between the land and the sky in the Aboriginal world and that in many areas of Australia the sky is simply a reflection of the land. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Clive Ruggles, whose guidance made it possible to complete this research. I would also like to thank the Aboriginal communities and individuals in Australia who offered me so much help and advice during the course of this work. This research would not have been possible without the encouraging and patient support of Gillian and Alison Fredrick. I declare that this research is entirely my own, conducted during a four-year period of registration at the University of Leicester. iii Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iii Contents .................................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ viii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ xi 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Background ............................................................................................................. 2 1.2. The Dreaming .......................................................................................................... 2 1.3. Problems with the Data ........................................................................................... 4 1.4. Summary ................................................................................................................. 6 2. Methodology .................................................................................................................... 7 2.1. Data collection ......................................................................................................... 7 2.2. Data classification by location ................................................................................ 9 2.3. Data classification by object ................................................................................. 12 2.4. Summary ............................................................................................................... 13 3. Ethnographer Review ..................................................................................................... 14 3.1. Background ........................................................................................................... 14 3.2. William Stanbridge ............................................................................................... 16 3.3. William Ridley ...................................................................................................... 18 3.4. James Dawson ....................................................................................................... 19 3.5. Alfred William Howitt .......................................................................................... 21 3.6. Katherine Langloh Parker ..................................................................................... 22 3.7. Walter Baldwin Spencer and Francis J. Gillen ..................................................... 23 3.8. Carl Strehlow ......................................................................................................... 24 3.9. Daisy Bates ............................................................................................................ 25 3.10. Norman B. Tindale ................................................................................................ 26 3.11. Charles Mountford ................................................................................................ 28 3.12. Brian G. Maegraith ................................................................................................ 30 3.13. Review Summary .................................................................................................. 33 4. Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 34 4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 34 iv 4.2. The Moon .............................................................................................................. 37 4.2.1. South .......................................................................................................... 37 4.2.2. Central ....................................................................................................... 40 4.2.3. North .......................................................................................................... 41 4.2.4. Boomerangs, Rib Bones and Changing Phases ......................................... 43 4.2.5. Summary ................................................................................................... 44 4.3. The Sun ................................................................................................................. 46 4.3.1. South .......................................................................................................... 47 4.3.2. Central ....................................................................................................... 47 4.3.3. North .......................................................................................................... 48 4.3.4. Summary ................................................................................................... 50 4.4. The Sun and the Moon .......................................................................................... 52 4.4.1. South .......................................................................................................... 52 4.4.2. Central ....................................................................................................... 53 4.4.3. North .......................................................................................................... 53 4.4.4. Summary ................................................................................................... 54 4.5. Orion and the Pleiades ........................................................................................... 56 4.5.1. South .......................................................................................................... 58 4.5.2. Central ....................................................................................................... 60 4.5.3. North .......................................................................................................... 61 4.5.4. Other Accounts .......................................................................................... 63 4.5.5. Summary ................................................................................................... 66 4.6. The Southern Cross, the Pointers and the Coal Sack ............................................ 67 4.6.1. South .......................................................................................................... 68 4.6.2. Central ......................................................................................................