Assessment and Synthetization of Extension Needs Encompassing the Economic and Ecological Impacts of Wild Pigs Among Young Pine Plantations by Micah Patrick Fern A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama December 16, 2017 Keywords: Longleaf pine, Wild hog, Survey, Seedlings, Damage Copyright 2017 by Micah Patrick Fern Approved by Rebecca Barlow, Chair, Associate Professor of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences John Kush, Research Fellow IV, Forestry and Wildlife Sciences Stephanie Shwiff, Research Economist Jim Armstrong, Professor of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences Larry Teeter, Professor of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences Abstract The southeastern United States has recently seen its first increases in Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) acreage after more than four centuries of decline thanks to ongoing restoration efforts. Connecting existing longleaf landscapes across this species’ native range depends largely on the successful establishment of plantations on non- industrial private lands. As in Alabama, the majority of forest lands in southeastern states are owned by non-industrial private landowners. Seedling depredation by wild hogs (Sus scrofa) poses a threat to longleaf restoration efforts especially in young forest plantations. Improving the knowledge base about wild hogs among young forest plantations will help guide better management decisions for non-industrial private landowners and resource professionals. This dissertation addresses extensions needs for information regarding wild hogs and explores the relationship between wild hogs and young forest plantations from two perspectives. First, an extension publication was created to synthesize and organize resource material pertaining to wild hogs in order to supplement the nine year gap since the last published bibliography. Second, a mail survey was conducted among non-industrial private landowners in Alabama to gain an understanding about wild hog damage and control in forest plantations. Findings were used to further explore the economics of wild hog damage and control for a stand level model utilizing longleaf. Third, a field study ii was performed to determine wild hog’s preference among seedling species and to observe ecological factors influencing seedling depredation. iii Acknowledgments I would first like to thank Dr. Becky Barlow and Dr. John Kush for their guidance, encouragement, and friendship throughout my doctoral studies. Their expertise, valuable input, and support proved most critical through every stage of the dissertation process. I could not have asked for a better advisor to serve under than Dr. Barlow, whose reputation among the faculty and students is testament to her character. Many thanks also go to the other School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Jim Armstrong and Dr. Larry Teeter. It was an honor to learn from individuals who are legends in their respective fields. I am indebted to the USDA employees who provided everything I needed to see this degree to completion. I would like to recognize Dr. Stephanie Shwiff, Dr. Chris Slootmaker, Ken Gruver, and Leif Stephens for their major roles in project over the past 3 years. Thank you for extending resources, funding, and no short amount of patience to me. I would like to thank the Foshee family (Dr. Wheeler, Marie, Luke, Mark) for making the beginnings of this academic journey possible and for their continued support throughout. Without them the opportunities afforded to me over the past six years would not have been possible. Their kindness to me during my time at Auburn will never be forgotten. iv To the generous faculty and staff of the School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, I thank you for always being willing to help and for the resources provided to help me complete this work. It has been an honor to work with many of you and to attend this school. v Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. x List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2. Wild Pig (Sus scrofa): An Update Bibliography ..................................................... 14 2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 14 2.2. Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 3. Economic Estimates of Wild Hog (Sus scrofa) Damage and Control Among Young Forest Plantations in Alabama .................................................................. 151 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 151 3.1.1. Current Status of Wild Hogs in the United States and Their Potential Impact on Alabama’s Forests ................................................................. 151 3.1.2. Wild Hog Damage to Forestry and Timber Resources ........................... 153 3.1.3. Research Needs and Project Description ................................................ 157 3.2. Methods ................................................................................................................ 159 3.2.1. Overview of Questionnaire Development .............................................. 160 3.2.2. Timber Stand Section of Survey .............................................................. 160 3.2.3. Wild Hog Control Section of Survey ...................................................... 161 vi 3.2.4. Willingness-to-pay (WTP)/Willingess-to-accept (WTA) Section of Survey ................................................................................................... 161 3.2.5. Survey Implementation ........................................................................... 162 3.2.6. Survey Response Data Analysis and Organization ................................ 165 3.2.7. Overview of Developing a Stand Level Economic Model .................... 165 3.2.8. Stand Level Economic Model: Cost Assumptions ................................ 166 3.2.9. Stand Level Economic Model: Growth and Yield Model Development .......................................................................................... 167 3.2.10. Stand Level Economic Model: Scenarios for Exploring Possible Landowner Responses to Wild Hog Damage ..................................... 171 3.2.11. Conducting Sensitivity Analyses on Scenarios 2-4 ............................. 173 3.3. Results .................................................................................................................. 175 3.3.1. Survey Results ....................................................................................... 175 3.3.2. Stand Level Economic Model: Growth and Yield Results for Projected Timber and Pine Straw Revenues .......................................... 189 3.3.3. Stand Level Economic Model: Economic Results of Four Scenarios for an Even Aged Longleaf Pine Operation Utilizing a Shelterwood System ................................................................................................... 191 3.3.4. Sensitivity Analyses Results ................................................................... 193 3.4. Discussion ............................................................................................................ 198 Chapter 4. Wild Hog (Sus scrofa) Preference Among Planted Pine and Hardwood Seedlings and the Ecological Factors Influencing Young Forest Plantation Damage ................................................................................................................. 206 vii 4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 206 4.1.1. Current Status of Wild Hogs in the United States .................................. 206 4.1.2. Wild Hog Damage in Relation to Forestry ............................................ 207 4.1.3. Southeastern Tree Species Commonly Associated with Wild Hog Damage ................................................................................................. 208 4.1.4. Ecological Factors Influencing Seedling Damage ................................. 210 4.1.5. Research Needs and Project Description ............................................... 211 4.2. Methods ................................................................................................................ 213 4.2.1. Site Selection and Description ................................................................ 213 4.2.2. Description of Experimental Design for Testing Planted Seedling Preference by Wild Hogs ....................................................................... 223 4.2.3. Camera Trap Deployment for Wild Hog Detection ............................... 225 4.2.4. Stand Level Economic Model: Cost Assumptions ...............................