The National Sufi Council: Redefining the Islamic Republic of Pakistan through a discourse on Sufism after 9/11 Teresa Ann Drage Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Religion and Society Research Centre University of Western Sydney March 2015 Dedication I dedicate this to my dad who passed away during the writing of this thesis. Stop the words now. Open the window in the centre of your chest, and let the spirits fly in and out. Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī (interpreted by Coleman Barks) Acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisors, Professor Julia Day Howell, Dr Jan Ali, and Associate Professor Emilian Kavalski. I am particularly indebted to Julie who not only read through numerous draft chapters and provided valuable guidance and encouragement, but who offered her unwavering patience and support throughout the entire thesis journey. I would like to thank the Religion and Society Research Centre (formerly the Centre for the Study of Contemporary Muslim Societies), University of Western Sydney, for making the research financially possible. I would also like to express my gratitude at having been able to be part of such a stimulating research environment. A sincere thank you to Professor Adam Possamai and Eva Garcia, and to the staff and fellow postgraduate students at the centre. A very special thank you to John Taylor who not only encouraged me to take the first step on the thesis journey, but who walked the path with me from beginning to end. He shared the joys and sorrows, the defeats and successes, and through it all was a constant source of enthusiasm, inspiration, and motivation. To him, a million thanks and much love. Last, but not least, I would like to thank my family. This thesis would not have been possible without their love, support, and (most of all) patience as I locked myself away to immerse myself in the research. Statement of Authentication The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. ……………………………………………………….. Teresa Ann Drage Table of Contents List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................ i List of Figures and Illustrations ....................................................................................................... ii Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. v 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The struggle to define a nation ........................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 An Islamic state or a Muslim nation? .......................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Heterogeneous Islamic traditions within Pakistani society ..................................... 5 1.1.3 The consequences of joining the ‘war on terror’ ........................................................ 8 1.1.4 Redefining the nation through a discourse on Sufism .............................................. 9 1.2 Background to the complex relationship between Sufism and the state ................. 13 1.2.1 Interpretations of Sufism ............................................................................................. 14 1.2.2 The arrival of Sufis in the Indian subcontinent ........................................................ 16 1.2.3 Sufism and the state in Pakistan ................................................................................. 19 1.2.4 Integrative aspects of the Sufi tradition .................................................................... 24 1.3 Understanding contemporary politics and Islam through discourse analysis ........ 26 1.3.1 Theoretical framework and a method for analysis .................................................. 27 1.3.2 Source material ............................................................................................................. 33 1.4 Chapter overview ................................................................................................................. 36 2 Historical antecedents to contending identity narratives in Pakistan ............................... 38 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 38 2.2 Initial encounters ................................................................................................................. 38 2.2.1 Islam in early South Asia, AD 711 – 996 ................................................................... 38 2.3 Towards ethnic, social, religious, and political diversity ............................................ 41 2.3.1 Islam in early medieval South Asia, AD 997 – 1206 ................................................ 41 2.3.2 Islam during the Delhi Sultanate, AD 1206 – 1526 .................................................. 44 2.4 From diversity to nationalism ........................................................................................... 51 2.4.1 Islam in Mughal South Asia, AD 1526 – 1858 .......................................................... 51 2.4.2 Islam in British South Asia, AD 1600 – 1947 ............................................................. 57 2.4.3 Islam and the Pakistan Movement, AD 1940 – 1947 ............................................... 61 2.5 Independent Pakistan ......................................................................................................... 66 2.5.1 Pakistan, AD 1947 – 1999 ............................................................................................. 66 2.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 73 3 The early discourse of President Musharraf, 2001 – 2004 ..................................................... 74 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 74 3.2 Catalysts for change in Pakistan ....................................................................................... 75 3.2.1 The coup of 1999: Pakistan returns to military rule ............................................... 75 3.2.2 The crisis of 9/11: Pakistan joins the ‘war on terror’ ............................................. 80 3.3 Official responses to the new socio-political challenges ............................................. 84 3.3.1 Urging the nation to support the decision to join the ‘war on terror’ .................. 84 3.3.2 Persuading the nation to support the domestic campaign against extremism ... 91 3.3.3 Rallying the nation to non-violent action and socio-economic uplift ................... 94 3.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 102 4 President Musharraf and the formation of the National Council for the Promotion of Sufism, 2005 – 2008 ..................................................................................................................... 104 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 104 4.2 Historical events, the expansion of discourses of moderation, and oppositional discourses ............................................................................................................................ 104 4.2.1 The religion column in passports controversy ....................................................... 106 4.2.2 Building a soft image of Pakistan through a discourse on Sufism and oppositional voices ..................................................................................................... 110 4.2.3 The Hisba Bill (2005) .................................................................................................. 119 4.2.4 London bombings ...................................................................................................... 120 4.2.5 The Danish cartoon controversy .............................................................................. 124 4.2.6 The dissemination of discourses of moderation in the Pakistani press ............. 127 4.3 The formation of the National Council for the Promotion of Sufism (NCPS) ...... 135 4.4 The decline of President Musharraf .............................................................................. 141 4.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 146 5 Chapter Five: President Zardari and the reconstitution of the Sufi Advisory Council, 2008-2011 ...................................................................................................................................... 148 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 148 5.2 Opportunities and challenges for the