A Political History of the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (1975-1991): Revolt, Ideology and Mobilisation in Ethiopia Aregawi Berhe Amsterdam 2008 VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT A political history of the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (1975-1991): Revolt, ideology and mobilisation in Ethiopia ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT Ter verkrijging van de graad Doctor aan de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, op gezag van de rector magnificus prof.dr. L.M. Bouter, in het openbaar te verdedigen ten overstaan van de promotiecommissie van de faculteit der Sociale Wetenschappen op dinsdag 2 september 2008 om 10.45 uur in de aula van de universiteit, De Boelelaan 1105 door Aregawi Berhe geboren te Adwa promotor: Prof. dr. G.J. Abbink co-promotor: Prof. dr. C.S. Clapham Pictures on the front cover: Top: a Tigrai landscape near Yeha Bottom: a TPLF force in the field, 1980s ii Dedication To the memory of Ato Gessesew Ayele (Sihul) and all those who died struggling for the cause of social justice, equality and a brighter future for Ethiopia. iii Thesis committee Prof. dr. M. Doornbos (Professor Emeritus, Institute of Social Studies) Prof. dr. H.W. Overbeek (Vrije Universiteit) Prof. dr. Tesfatsion Medhanie (Universität Bremen) Dr. A.J. Salman (Vrije Universiteit) Dr. K. van Walraven (Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden) iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acronyms and Abbreviations viii List of Maps x Acknowledgements xiv Chapter 1 Introduction 1 - Background to the Study 1 - Main Tenets of the Study 4 - Research Questions 10 - Hypothesis 11 - Objectives of the Research 12 - Methodology 13 - Relevance of the Study 15 - Structure of the Book 16 Chapter 2 Ethnicity, Mobilization and Revolt: Theoretical Considerations 18 - The Power and Fluidity of Ethnicity 18 - Ethno-Nationalism, Self-Determination and Secession 22 - Ethnic Mobilization in a Multi-Ethnic Society 31 - Peasant Revolt and Revolutionary Elite: Where Do They Conjoin? 35 - Guerrilla Warfare and the State 40 - The Linkage of Ethno-Nationalist Revolt and the TPLF: a Summary 44 Chapter 3 Prelude to the Struggle – the Emergence of the TPLF 45 Introduction 45 - How It all Began 46 - Historical Roots of the Problem 50 - The Growth of Associations 57 - A Political Movement 63 - The Role of Sihul 66 - The People on the Eve of the Armed Struggle 69 - From TNO to TPLF 72 Summary 77 Chapter 4 Testing the Fire: Guerrilla Warfare Launched 79 Introduction 79 - Journey to Dedebit 80 - Training in Guerrilla Warfare 82 - The Contingent’s Return from Eritrea 85 - Crisis Creeps in 89 - Storming the Shire Police Station 93 - The Aksum Operation 94 - Encounter with the TLF 97 v - Deima – Eastern Base Area 103 Summary 109 Chapter 5 Mobilization and Armed Confrontation 111 Introduction 111 - Self-determination as a Means of Mobilization 112 - Uprooting the Shiftas (Bandits) 116 - Organizational Development and Structure 119 - The War with EDU 125 - The Second Internal Crisis (Hinfishfish) 137 - Words and Bullets – Battles with EPRP 142 Summary 151 Chapter 6 The Military Government (Dergue) and the TPLF 153 Introduction 153 - The Dergue on the National Question 154 - The TPLF Military Build up 165 - The Military Campaigns (Zemecha) of the Dergue 173 - Debate over Military Strategy 185 Summary 188 Chapter 7 Ideological Controversies on Self-Determination 191 Introduction 191 - The Early Phase of the Struggle 192 - The ‘Manifesto-68’: Secession as an End 195 - Organizational Policy and Plan of Action 200 - ‘Narrow’ nationalism Persists after the Second TPLF Congress 203 Summary 206 Chapter 8 Capture of a Movement: the Role of the Marxist-Leninist League of Tigrai (MLLT) 208 - Introduction 208 - Leftist Orientation of the TPLF 210 - Forging a Leftist Party 214 - The MLLT Founding Congress amid Famine 217 - Organizational Restructuring and Take-Over of the TPLF 223 - Extension of the MLLT to Puppet Organization 228 - The Ideological Trajectory of the MLLT since 1985 and the Development of ‘Revolutionary Democracy’ 233 - Summary 237 Chapter 9 TPLF and the Eritrean Fronts: Background of a Tense Relationship 239 Introduction 239 - Historical Background 240 - Launching the TPLF and the Eritrean Connection 251 vi - TPLF and ELF Never Went Along Well 253 - The TPLF and the EPLF: Cupboard-love relationship 260 - Ethiopian and Eritrea under the TPLF and the EPLF respectively 273 Summary 276 Chapter 10 The Consolidation of the TPLF: Forging Power through Social Change 277 Introduction 277 - Peasant Associations 278 - Land Reform 283 - Women’s Organization: A New Phenomenon 290 - The Youth: Cadres and Cultural Troupes 295 - Neutralizing the Church and Mobilizing Muslims 300 - The People’s Council (Baito): Reconfiguration of Local Administration 304 Summary 311 Chapter 11 Turning Point: The Fall of the Dergue and the Triumph of the TPLF 313 Introduction 313 - The Dergue Falters 314 - The Descent of the Dergue and the Ascent of the TPLF 321 - Futile Peace Talks 326 - The TPLF/EPRDF’s Initial Moments in Power 329 - Wangling over Power: Events Leading to the July 1991 Conference 331 - The July Conference and the Transitional Charter 336 - Whose Charter and Constitution? 340 Summary 345 Chapter 12 The TPLF and African Insurgencies: A Comparative Perspective 347 Introduction 348 - Ideology 351 - Leadership 358 - Youth Mobilization 362 - Relations with the Civilian Population 366 Summary 370 General Conclusion 372 Bibliography 387 Appendices 405 1. Participants of the July 1-5, 1991 Conference 405 2. Transitional Period Charter of Ethiopia 407 vii 3. Brief Profile of the Founders and Leaders of the TPLF 412 4. List of Ethnic and National Parties in 2002 416 Curriculum Vitae 418 Samenvatting 419 viii Acronyms and Abbreviations AAPO - All-Amhara People’s Organization ANDM - Amhara National Democratic Movement ARDUF - Afar Revolutionary Democratic United Front Baito - People’s Council (in Tigrai) CDC - Constitution Drafting Commission COEDF - Coalition of Ethiopian Democratic Forces COR - Council of Representatives CUD - Coalition for Unity and Democracy Dergue - Military Committee, ruling Ethiopia from 1974 to 1991 EDP - Ethiopian Democratic Party EDU - Ethiopian Democratic Union ELF - Eritrean Liberation Front EPDA - Ethiopian Peoples Democratic Alliance EPDM - Ethiopian People’s Democratic Movement EPLF - Eritrean People’s Liberation Front EPRDF - Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front EPRP - Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party IFLO - Islamic Front for the Liberation of Oromia Meison - All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement MLLT - Marxist-Leninist League of Tigrai OLF - Oromo Liberation Front ONC - Oromo National Congress ONLF - Ogaden National Liberation Front OPDO - Oromo People’s Democratic Organization PDO - People’s Democratic Organization PMAC - Provisional Military Administrative Council REST - Relief Society of Tigrai SEPDC - Southern Ethiopian People’s Democratic Coalition SLM - Sidama Liberation Movement TAND - Tigraian Alliance for National Democracy TDA - Tigrai Development Association TGE - Transitional Government of Ethiopia TLF - Tigrai Liberation Front TNO - Tigraian National Organization (Magebt) TPDM - Tigray People’s Democratic Movement TPLF - Tigrai People’s Liberation Front Teranafit - Tigray Liberation Front-Teranafit Committee UEDF - United Ethiopian Democratic Forces WPE - Workers’ Party of Ethiopia WSLF - Western Somalia Liberation Front ix Maps 1-4 Map 1: Ethiopia (pre 1991) – Provinces and major towns Source: adapted from Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia, Berkeley – Los Angeles London, 1994, p. 222. x Map 2: Ethiopia since 1993 – Regions (‘killil’) and their capitals Addis Ababa & Harar – City states Dire-Dawa – Separate administrative region Source: Information Section of the UNDP-Emergency Unit for Ethiopia, 1996. xi Map 3: Fronts’ Base Areas, Tigrai – Northern Ethiopia (D) – Dedebit, Initial TPLF base area (E) – EDU base areas. (P)- EPRP base area. (T)-TPLF base area. Map © Aregawi Berhe xii Map 4: Major Battles (1975-1991) in Tigrai Map © Aregawi Berhe Numbers in circles represent warring groups & approximate terrain of engagements: Battles Year (1) TPLF vs Dergue 26 1975-1991 (2) TPLF vs EDU + Teranafit 9 1976-1978 (3) TPLF vs EPRP 5 1978-1979 (4) TPLF vs ELF 2 1979 (5) Dergue vs EDu 6 1975-1977 (6) Dergue vs EPRP 5 1975-1978 (7) Dergue vs ELF 2 1975 (8) Dergue vs EPLF 3 1975-1976 xiii Acknowledgements Many people and institutions contributed in so many ways to the completion of this dissertation. My sincere gratitude goes to all of them. First and foremost though, I am deeply grateful to my promotor Professor Jon Abbink for his unreserved support and guidance throughout the research undertaking, which started as a book project. Under the hard life in exile, this study would have not come near completion without his assistance, encouragement and intellectual guidance. Not only was he the VU University ‘promotor’ but also a source of inspiration in this academic challenge. I thank him for his insistence that I write a primarily academic rather than a political work, and I appreciate the constant guidance that he gave me in this respect. I hereby also absolve him from any such occasional lapses that the text still might have. My sincere thanks and gratitude also go to my ‘co-promotor’ Professor Christopher Clapham for his profound comments, observations and suggestions he gave on the thesis. In addition, the constructive comments I received from the external examiners have also contributed significantly in broadening the scope of my research. I thank them all. I am indebted to many friends who helped me in a number of