DESERT ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE IN THE CENTRAL NEGEV AND KADESH-BARNEA DURING HISTORICAL TIMES PROMOTOREN: dr. ir. L. J. Pons hoogleraari nd eregional e bodemkunde dr. A.M. vande rWoud e hoogleraar in deagrarisch e geschiedenis Hendrik J. Bruins DESERT ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE IN THECENTRA L NEGEV AND KADESH-BARNEA DURING HISTORICAL TIMES Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor in de landbouwwetenschappen, op gezagva n de rector magnificus, dr. C.C. Oosterlee in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 23me i 1986 des namiddags te vier uur in de aula van de Landbouwhogeschool te Wageningen. 1986 I-mm- MIDBARFoundatio n /Nijkerk , TheNetherland s \ i • . °\ Copyright (c) 1986b yHendri kJ .Bruin s All rights reserved. Nopar t ofthi spublicatio nma yb ereproduced , stored ina retrieva l system, ortransmitte d inan yfor mo rb yan ymeans , electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without theprio r written permission fromth eMidba r Foundation. ISBN 90-71666-01-8 CIP-GEGEVENSKONINKLIJK E BIBLIOTHEEK,DE NHAA G Bruins, HendrikJ . Desert environment andagricultur e inth ecentra l Negev and Kadesh-Barnea during historical times/ Hendri kJ . Bruins. -Nijker k :Midba r Foundation.- Fig. , foto's,tab . Proefschrift Wageningen. -Me tlit .opg .- Me tsamenvattin g inhe tNederlands . ISBN 90-71666-01-8 SISO63 5 UDC 63(252)(091)(043.3) Trefw.: landbouw ;Nege v ;geschiedeni s/ landbou w; Kadesh-Barnea ;geschiedenis . Copieso fthi s dissertation mayb eobtaine d from either MIDBAR FOUNDATION or H.J.Bruin s P.O.Bo x 78 Jacob Blaustein Institute forDeser t Research 3860A BNijker k Ben-Gurion University ofth eNege v The Netherlands SedeBoqe r Campus, 84990 Israel Price: DF1 39.95 (Dutch guilders);DF 1 4.95 - postagean dpacking . Payment eithero nth eban k accounto fth eMidba rFoundation : 37.78.34.009 - Rabobank,P.O .Bo x44 ,386 0A ANijkerk ,Th eNetherlands ; or enclose remittancewit h order; postal ordersan dcheque s shouldb e made payable toth eMIDBA R FOUNDATION. Cover: The valley oasis ofEi ne lQudeira t (Kadesh-Barnea)i n the north­ eastern Sinai desert; noteth enorther n wallo nGebe le lQudeira tan d the central Negev mountainsa tth ehorizon . BIBLIOTHEEK DER iiSDBOtJWHOGESCHOO* VAGENINGEN AiA/0£?QI, ,0\> J 1 •' t• ~ K STELLINGEN i-i-U;i.oJ- S ttOGESCHOOl WAGENINSEN 1. About one third of the world's terrestrial surface is occupied by dry lands, usually divided into hyper-arid, arid and semi-arid zones. Runoff farming isth e only form of agriculture based upon local rainfall which is possible in the arid zone senso stricto, besides extensive livestock rearing. 2. Runoff farming or rainwater-harvesting agriculture is farming in dry regions by means of runoff rainwater from whatever type of catchment or ephemeral stream. H.J. Bruins, M. Evenari, U. Nessler (1986) Rainwater-harvesting agricul­ ture for food production in arid zones: the challenge of the African famine. Applied Geography 6:13-32. 3. The following runoff farming systems are distinguished, arranged in order of increasing hydro-geomorphic scale: 1)Micro-catchmen t system 2) Terraced wadi system 3)Hillsid e conduit system 4)Lima n system 5)Diversio n system A thorough understanding of the landscape is required, in terms of geology, geomorphology, soils, climate and hydrology, to evaluate the suitability of an area for runoff farming and to design the proper system in each particular situation, taking socio-economic factors into account. H.J. Bruins, M. Evenari, U. Nessler (1986) Rainwater-harvesting agricul­ ture for food production in arid zones: the challenge of the African famine. Applied Geography 6:13-32. 4. Pastoral nomadism isdoome d to stagnation, because increased production in nomadic society asa whol e is,t o any significant extent, impossible. Khazanov, A.M. (1985:71,76) Nomads and the outside world. Cambridge University Press. 5. Combinations of semi-extensive livestock rearing and runoff farming ought to be considered in the arid zone of developing countries to increase local food production and to enhance system viability. 6. The promotion of agrarian self-sufficiency in developing countries suffering from malnutrition and famine should be the main policy guideline in agricultural development cooperation. 7. Internal food reserves must form an integral part of self-sufficient agricultural systems in arid regions,a s abuffe r for the inevitable years ofdrought . 8. Instrumental recordso fweathe r observations indicate that from about195 0 extreme variations inclimati c patterns began tooccu r inman y parts of the world. Agricultural planners ought totak e this into account. Buffer stockpiles offoo d should beforme d invulnerabl e agro-climatic regions. Diversification of agro-ecosystems should bestimulate d to lessen the impact ofclimati c shocks,a sth eone-cro p economywa sa tth eroo to fman y ofth egreates t famines inth epast . Partly based on Lamb, H.H. (1982) Climate, history and the modern world. London: Methuen. 9. There appears tob ea relationship between themajo r historic period of sediment accumulation inth eKadesh-Barne a valley, from A.D. 1200-1700, and climatic conditions associated with theso-calle d Little Ice Age. 10. Experimental archaeology can make an important contribution to the understanding ofth epast . 11. Geologists and archaeologists should beware of the "reinforcement syndrome" by whichne wdat a areforce d into an existing stratigraphic framework without evaluating thevalidit y ofth eframewor k inth eligh to f thene wdata . Modified after Watkins, N.D. (1972) Reviews of the development of the geomagnetic polarity time scale and discussion of prospect for its finer definition. Geological Society of America Bulletin 83:551-574. 12. "Thestead y onward flowo ftime , which isth eessenc e ofth ecause-effec t relation, issomethin g whichw esuperimpos e ont oth eascertaine d lawso f nature outo fou row nexperience ; whether orno ti ti sinheren t in the nature oftime , wesimpl y dono t know". Jeans, Sir James (1930:32) The Mysterious Universe. New York: Macmillan. 13. Tounderstan d aphenomeno n wehav e notonl y tokno w what itis , but also how itcam e into being. Boas, F. (1940:305) Race, Language and Culture. New York: Macmillan. 14. Without the unigue food provisioning of manna, theancien t Israelites would have perished during their sojournment inth ehyper-ari d to arid Sinai desert,afte r theExodu s from Egypt. H.J. Bruins. Desert Environment andAgricultur e inth ecentra l Negev andKadesh-Barne a during historical times. Auditorium, Agricultural University ofWageningen ;2 3Ma y 1986. ABSTRACT Bruins, H.J. (1986) Desert Environment and Agriculture in the central Negev and Kadesh-Barnea during Historical Times. Doctoral dissertation,Agricultura l University ofWageningen ,Th e Netherlands. XI + 219 p.,2 7 tables,2 9 figures,4 8photos ,22 8 refs,2 app.Dutc h summary. Land use based on local rainfall in the arid zone senso stricto is often limited to pastoralism, sometimes combined with very marginal rainfed farming, unsuccessful inmos t years. A more sophisticated form of rainfed agriculture - runoff farming -ha sbee n practised in the central Negev and adjacent north­ eastern Sinai by a sedentary population incertai n historical periods, parti­ cularly during Byzantine times from the 5th to 7th century A.D. The environ­ ment ofth eRunof fFarmin g District in theNege v isdescribed , aswel l as the mechanics of rainwater-harvesting agriculture or runoff farming. Five systems of runoff farming aredistinguishe d on hydro-geomorphic criteria. Excavations have been carried out in ancient runoff farming wadi terraces at Horvat Haluqim, apparently dating back some three millennia, and inNaha l Mitnan, attributed to theLat e Byzantine -Earl y Arab period.Th e practising of runoff farming at Horvat Haluqim in antiquity has been substantiated by specific soil development in an ancient wadi-terrace layer, indicative of periodically flooded conditions. Calculations have beenmad e about food production, based upon wheat yields, in relation toestimate d population levels in the past. Besides runoff farming, oasis-irrigation agriculture in the region could only be practised at aver y few spots. The valley oasiso fKadesh-Barne a or Ein el Qudeirat, situated in northeastern Sinai, ison e ofth e most outstanding places in this respect inth e entire Sinai-Negev desert, endowed with a copious spring and cultivable soils.Th e systems of irrigation agriculture are described, whilst theremnant s of ancient aquaducts have been dated by radio­ carbon.Th e valley stratigraphy and soil development have been investigated in detail, in relation toth e tell (mainly composed ofancien t Israelite fortres­ ses, although theEarl y Fortress might date back toth eLat e Bronze age, as suggested by C-14dates) , and in relation toancien t remnants of irrigation agriculture, dated by radiocarbon to theBronz e age and the 7th century A.D. Dramatic cut-and-fill processes have occurred inth e Kadesh-Barnea valley during historical times. These remarkable changes have been substantiated, in addition to the stratigraphic evidence,throug h the detection of specific soil development, particularly themicroscopi c discovery ofauthigeni c pyrite. A detailed chrono-stratigraphy has been established based upon radiocarbon dates, determined by the Isotope PhysicsLaborator y ofProf .Moo k (University of Groningen). All the radiocarbon dates have been calibrated from conventio­ nal C-14 years intohistorica l years. The carrying capacities of the Runoff Farming District and theKadesh-Barne a -Quseim a region have been calculated and the outcomes arecompare d with former population levels.Th e relationships between the landscape, climatic and agricultural history are evaluated. A clear time-correlation exists between valley aggradation and a relatively wet climate, as well asbetwee n valley incision and a relatively dry climate. There is a bit of irony inth e conclusion that runoff farming was not prac­ tised by a sedentary population in the central Negev desert in those periods during the last threemillenni a when the climate was relatively wet.