Forgiveness, Feeling Connected to Others, and Well-Being: Two Longitudinal Studies Giacomo Bono Michael E. McCullough Lindsey M. Root University of Miami In two studies, the authors investigated the associations we have conceptualized forgiveness as prosocial changes between interpersonal forgiveness and psychological in people’s transgression-related interpersonal motiva- well-being. Cross-sectional and prospective multilevel tions toward a transgressor. That is, when people for- analyses demonstrated that increases in forgiveness (mea- give a transgressor, they become less motivated by sured as fluctuations in individuals’ avoidance, revenge, revenge and avoidance and more motivated by benevo- and benevolence motivations toward their transgressors) lence toward the transgressor (McCullough et al., 1998; were related to within-persons increases in psychological McCullough, Worthington, & Rachal, 1997). In cross- well-being (measured as more satisfaction with life, more sectional and longitudinal studies, forgiveness has been positive mood, less negative mood, and fewer physical associated with improved interpersonal relationships symptoms). Moreover, forgiveness was more strongly between the forgiver and the transgressor (Karremans linked to well-being for people who reported being closer & Van Lange, 2004; McCullough et al., 1998; Tsang, and more committed to their partners before the trans- McCullough, & Fincham, 2006). In addition to its gression and for people who reported that their partners apparent relational benefits, forgiveness is also posi- apologized and made amends for the transgression. tively associated with psychological well-being (Brown, Evidence for the reverse causal model, that increases in 2003; Freedman & Enright, 1996; Karremans, Van well-being were related to increases in forgiveness, was Lange, Ouwerkerk, & Kluwer, 2003; Poloma & also found. However, changes in feelings of closeness Gallup, 1991). The link of forgiveness to these two sets toward the partner appeared to account for the associa- of outcomes (relational and psychological) may be more tions of forgiveness with well-being, but not vice versa. than coincidental: Perhaps forgiveness obtains its asso- ciation with psychological well-being precisely because Keywords: forgiveness; closeness; well-being; apology; forgiveness helps people maintain and restore close rela- longitudinal tionships (Karremans et al., 2003). Forgiveness, Well-Being, and Social hen negotiating interpersonal relationships, people Connectedness Wexperience many motives and preferences, some in service of immediate self-interest and some in service of Maintaining supportive relationships with kin and broader relationship concerns. Sometimes, though, nonkin is important for mental and physical health in people’s self-interested motives and preferences may not the present day (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; House, correspond to those of a given relationship partner (de Waal, 2000; Kelley & Thibault, 1978; Rusbult, Verette, Authors’ Note: This research was generously supported by grants Whitney, Slovik, & Lipkus, 1991). Thus, conflicts from the Campaign for Forgiveness Research and National Institute of inevitably arise and challenge relationships. By forgiving Mental Health R01MH071258. Correspondence regarding this arti- cle may be sent to Michael McCullough, Department of Psychology, each other, it appears, people are able to overcome the University of Miami, P.O. Box 248185, Coral Gables, FL 33124- negative effects conflict can have on their relationships 0751; e-mail: [email protected] (e.g., Fincham, 2000; McCullough et al., 1998). PSPB, Vol. XX No. X, Month XXXX xx-xx In our program of research (McCullough, Bono, & DOI: 10.1177/0146167207310025 Root, 2007; McCullough, Fincham, & Tsang, 2003), © 2007 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 1 2 PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Landis, & Umberson, 1988), and these salutary effects relationships that result) that should lead to the most may mirror the crucial role that such relationships dramatic improvements in psychological well-being. played in human evolution (Hamilton, 1964; Nesse, In this light, factors besides the victim’s degree of 2001; Trivers, 1971). The apparent link of forgiveness commitment to the transgressor are likely to be impor- to psychological well-being may therefore be due to the tant also. One important factor to consider is the extent fact that low psychological well-being can function as a to which transgressors apologize and make amends for type of “information” that alerts people to relational their transgressions. Ample evidence suggests that apolo- difficulties and creates motivation for improving gies can mitigate anger and yield constructive reactions impaired social relations. This way of thinking about to harm and forgiveness (Hodgins & Liebeskind, 2003; the relationship of forgiveness, psychological well- Ohbuchi, Kameda, & Agarie, 1989; Zechmeister, being, and relational well-being is similar to the way Garcia, & Romero, 2004). Apologies are among the that self-esteem can be conceptualized as an indicator of most robust facilitators of forgiveness (e.g., McCullough lack of social acceptance (Leary, 2004), or that loneli- et al., 1997)—an effect that may be due in part to their ness can be viewed as feedback designed to prompt ability to convince victims that their transgressors pos- people to remediate the hedonic and cognitive conse- sess goodwill for them (despite having previously hurt quences of social isolation (Cacioppo et al., 2006). Self- them). Thus, in the absence of an apology, forgiveness determination theory provides a complementary (and may be less conducive for psychological well-being more proximally focused) explanation: Forgiveness because the relationship may still be marked by uncer- might obtain its association to well-being by influencing tainty about a transgressor’s intentions toward the vic- the forgiver’s perceptions of his or her relationship with tim (and thus, their future value as a relationship the transgressor because maintaining a proper degree of partner). As a result of this lingering uncertainty about connectedness to others is a fundamental psychological a transgressor’s intentions toward the victim, forgive- need (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000). ness of an unapologetic transgressor would be less Because forgiveness involves reductions of negative strongly related to psychological well-being. motivations and the re-establishment of positive motiva- tions toward transgressors, we posit that forgiveness The Current Investigation helps people to regain the perception that their relation- We conducted two studies to investigate how tempo- ships with their offenders are characterized by closeness rary changes in forgiveness—operationalized as transient and commitment (Tsang et al., 2006). Therefore, we pro- fluctuations in avoidance, revenge, and benevolence pose that forgiving a relationship partner causes people motivations (McCullough et al., 2003; McCullough to perceive that they have “reconnected” to an important et al., 2007)—are longitudinally related to well-being. source of social support and can again take advantage of Using multilevel random coefficient models (Bryk & the material and emotional resources that supportive Raudenbush, 1992; Hedeker, 2004), we sought to extend social ties can confer. As a result, well-being improves. the existing insights on the relationship between forgive- ness and psychological well-being in several ways. First, Forgiveness, Restored Closeness, and Well-Being: to date, all the work on the relationship between forgive- A Function of Pretransgression Closeness and ness and well-being has focused on individual differences Transgressor Apology? between persons rather than intra-individual differences The ability of forgiveness to facilitate psychological that occur within persons over time. In light of recent well-being, however, may depend on the quality of rela- research demonstrating forgiveness to be a time-varying tionship partner one is forgiving. Karremans and col- phenomenon (McCullough et al., 2003; McCullough leagues (2003) found that forgiving was more strongly et al., 2007), use of evidence of within-persons (rather associated with psychological well-being for people than between-persons) associations are required to best who forgave a relationship partner to whom they were test whether forgiveness may lead to greater well-being. highly committed than for people who forgave a rela- Thus, we used recent methods for studying the within- tionship partner to whom they were not highly commit- persons associations among variables (Nezlek, 2001) to ted. This comports well with the theory of reciprocal examine if psychological well-being is greater for people altruism (Trivers, 1971) as well as with self-determination on days when they are also more forgiving than is typical theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), as it is relationships that for them and, insofar as it is, whether this association are close and committed prior to the transgression that appears to be mediated by increased perceptions of close- hold the most potential value to the forgiver. As a ness and commitment to the transgressor. result, if our informational view of psychological well- Second, we examined whether these intra-individual being here is accurate, then it is the forgiveness of close, relationships between forgiveness and psychological well- committed relationship partners (and the improved being were