Contested Discourses of Women’s Identity in Chinese Print Media Huiling Xu BA, Fudan University, 2002 MA, Fudan University, 2005 This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2015 Department of Linguistics Faculty of Human Sciences Macquarie University Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….........i Statement of Candidate……………………………………………………..…..……..iii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………..….....v List of Tables and Figures..............................................................................................vii List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………….………….…ix Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………….….1 1.1 Thesis Statement………………………………………………………….…………..1 1.2 The Research Context …………………………………………………………….….2 1.2.1 The Motivation…………………………………………………………….….….2 1.2.2 The Development of Women’s Identity in China…………………….……….….6 1.3 Research Perspectives……………………………………………………………..…..8 1.3.1 Research Questions……………………………………………………..….…..…9 1.3.2 Overview of Thesis……………………………………………………..…..……13 Chapter Two: Contexts and Themes……………………………….……15 2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….……15 2.2 Historical Background of Positioning Women in China………………………..…...15 2.2.1 The Pre-Mao era (~ 1949)…………………………………………………..…..16 2.2.2 The Mao era (1949-1976)……………………………………………..…….…..18 2.2.3 The Post-Mao era (1976~)……………………………………………….….…..22 2.2.3.1 Diversity & Contestation………………………………………….……...26 2.3 Theoretical Background of Researching Gender in Media……………………....…..29 2.3.1 Women’s Studies in China…………………………………………………....…30 2.3.1.1 The First Wave of the Chinese Feminist Movement………………..…..…31 2.3.1.2 The Second Wave of the Chinese Feminist Movement…………….….….33 2.3.1.2.1 The Fourth World Conference on Women (FWCW) in Beijing and its Significance…………………………………………………….………..37 2.3.2 Gender and Media Studies in China………………………………..…………….39 2.3.3 Discourses of Gender Identity in the Context of Media Presentation…..…….….43 2.3.3.1 Defining Gender……………………………………………………........…44 2.3.3.2 Discourse on Gender…………………………………………………….…47 2.3.3.3 The Role of Media in Discourse…………………………………….…..51 2.4 Summary…………………………………………………………….………….….54 Chapter Three: Methodological Framework……………………….…57 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….….57 3.2 Multi-method Research Approach…………………………………………….…...59 3.2.1 Multi-perspectival framework……………………………………………....…60 3.2.1.1 Analyst’s perspective ..................................................................................62 3.2.1.2 Semiotic resource perspective......................................................................63 3.2.1.3 Participants’ perspective...............................................................................65 3.2.1.4 Social/institutional perspective.....................................................................66 3.2.1.5 Social practice perspective............................................................................68 3.2.2 Data Sets…………………………………………………………………….…..70 3.2.3 Methodology Toolbox……………………………………………………….…..75 3.2.3.1 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) ………………………………………....76 3.2.3.2 Metaphor Analysis…………………………………………………………..79 3.2.3.3 Membership Categorization Analysis (MCA)………………………………83 3.2.3.4 Genre Analysis………………………………………………………………86 3.2.3.5 Narrative Analysis…………………………………………………..………90 3.3 Summary………………………………………………………………............……93 Chapter Four: Analysis of 人民日报 ren min ri bao-People’s Daily (PD) and 中国妇女 zhong guo fu nü-Women of China (WOC)………………….…95 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..….…95 4.2 Work Identity - Women Holding up Half the Sky……………………………………….…97 4.2.1 Construction of 半边天 ban bian tian-Half the Sky …………………………….…..97 4.2.2 Woman & nation ……………………………………………………………….104 4.2.3 Model of 铁姑娘 tie gu niang-Iron Girl ……………………………………......112 Vignette 4.2-(1) “高大全 gao da quan-High, Big, Complete” - Typical Character Report…………………………………………………………………...120 4.2.4 Transformation of work models……………………………………………..…..122 4.3 Family Identity - Harmonious Family in a Harmonious Society…………………….….125 4.3.1 Woman & family……………………………………………………………...….126 4.3.1.1 The tradition - 三 从 四 德 san cong si de-Three Obediences & Four Virtues……………………………………………………………………….....….127 4.3.1.2 Construction of Harmonious Family…………………………………..….128 4.3.2 Contemporary models…………………………………………….………...132 4.3.2.1 An ideal wife - 贤妻良母 xian qi liang mu-a Good Wife & Mother…...133 4.3.2.2 From Happy Women to Complete Women……………………………..….136 4.4 Work/Family Dilemma - “Have It All” ................................................................140 4.4.1 Construction of the Third Type Woman………………………………….……..141 4.4.1.1 Double-role – balance………………………………………....................144 4.4.2 An unease compromise………………………………………….………….148 4.4.2.1 Double-role – imbalance………………………...................................…151 4.4.2.2 Go Back Home debates……………………………………………….155 4.5 Self-Identity - Emerging Awareness………………………………………………159 4.5.1 Woman & self …………………………………………………………..….159 4.5.2 Expression of femininity and sexuality ………………………………..…..162 4.5.3 Affordable hobbies & leisure ……………………………………………….167 4.5.4 Autonomy in love & marriage ……………………………………………..171 4.5.5 Happiness of being herself …………………………………………………175 Vignette 4.5-(1) 剩女 shen nü-Leftover Ladies …………………………………..176 4.6 Summary ……………………………………………………………………..…..179 Chapter Five: Analysis of 妇女研究论丛 fu nü yan jiu lun cong-Collection of Women’s Studies (CWS)……………………………………………...183 5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….183 5.2 Behind “Half the Sky” – Issues in Work Identity……………………………..…..185 5.2.1 Glass Ceiling………………………………………………………………….……186 5.2.1.1 Distribution across professions…………………………………..…..189 5.2.1.2 Employment for graduates……………………………………..….…191 5.2.2 Fear of Success……………………………………………………………..….…..195 5.2.2.1 Double Standard on successful women……………………….….….198 5.2.2.2 Female PhD as the Third Sex…………………………………………..….203 5.3 Changes in Family Identity…………………………………………………….…206 5.3.1 Tradition- embracing or breaking?................................................................207 5.3.2 Contested standards in choosing a spouse…………………………………210 5.3.2.1 Marrying a Good Husband is Better Than Having a Good Job…………...211 5.3.2.2 Leftover Ladies…………………………………………………………………...217 5.4 Addressing the Work/Family Conflict……………………………………………..…...221 5.4.1 Burning Candles vs. Keeping the Balance……………………………………..……222 5.4.1.1 Double-ness and burden…………………………………………………224 5.4.2 Beyond women’s own efforts………………………………………………..…231 5.4.2.1 Men’s role & perspective………………………………………….….…233 5.5 Summary…………………………………………………………………………….…236 Chapter Six: Analysis of Editorials and National Discourses………..…239 6.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..239 6.2 Nation & Women - a Chinese Characteristic …………………………………….…..243 6.2.1 “Led by” the Party…………………………………………………………….248 6.2.2 “Firmly Adopt” Marxist Feminism……………………………………………252 6.3 Half the Sky - Expectation of Women Models……………………………………….255 6.3.1 Iron Girl and Four-Self Spirit………………………………………………....260 6.3.2 Unique role in a Harmonious Society…………………………………………265 6.4 Summary………………………………………………………………………..…….271 Chapter Seven: Analysis of Interviews with Journalism Practitioners ………………………………………………………………275 7.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….275 7.2 Presenting Diversity of Women’s Identity………………………………………..…277 7.2.1 Stereotypes “Outdated”?.......................................................................................279 7.2.2 The ideal model - “the Third Type”……………………………………………...282 7.2.3 Arising self-awareness……………………………………………………..……287 7.2.3.1 Living with tradition …………………………………………………..288 7.2.3.2 Value of individualism ……………………………………………….……..293 7.3 Creating Women’s Identity in Media………………………………………………..297 7.3.1 Typical Character Report - PD and WOC………………………………………….…298 7.3.2 The rise of professional women…………………………………………………304 7.3.3 Struggle in transition………………………………………………………….…311 7.3.3.1 Categorizing the diversity - labeling or not? ……………………………….313 7.3.3.2 Tension behind the choices - the unspeakable……………………..320 7.3.3.3 The other “Half the Sky” - men’s perspective……………….….…325 7.4 Summary………………………………………………………………...…329 Chapter Eight: Conclusion…………………………………………333 8.1 Summary ……………………………….………………………………….…333 8.1.1 Analysis on PD and WOC……………………………………………………...333 8.1.2 Analysis on CWS…………………………………………………………..….....335 8.1.3 Analysis on PD editorials and national discourses…………………….....336 8.1.4 Analysis on interviews………………………………………………….…337 8.2 Implications…………………………………………………………………...338 8.2.1 Metaphorical construction of Half the Sky and Harmonious Society….….339 8.2.2 Socio-cultural factors and social change……………………………….....342 8.2.3 The role of media in constructing gender identity……………………..…344 8.2.4 Limitations and future directions for research………………………...…..347 References………………………………………………………..…350 Appendix - Final Ethics Approval Letters…………..……………371 Abstract From the 1980s, and especially since the late 1990s against the backdrop of rapid economic development and the overwhelming influence of globalization, China has undergone dynamic and complex transformation. Historically sited ideologies and cultural impacts have placed contemporary Chinese women at a crossroads of identity confusion: between adhering to the “rationality” of prevailing definitions of the “good woman” from a traditional perspective, and the “craving” for independence and success outside the confines of the home. Tensions in the ongoing re-definition of women’s identity