University of Alberta Digital Activism and the Public Sphere by Victoria Susan Alexander Smith A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Humanities Computing ©Victoria Susan Alexander Smith Fall 2013 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. This thesis is dedicated to my best friend Nicholas. For his love, support and encouragement. ABSTRACT This thesis examines the role that digital technology plays in the advancement of political and social goals. Though a fairly recent phenomenon, digital activism has become a highly contested topic as regards its effectiveness. This thesis looks at two case studies in the use of digital tools for activism, the 2011 Arab Spring in Tunisia and then in Egypt. Digital activism is theorized as is related to the public sphere as discussed by Jürgen Habermas. This thesis concludes by identifying a number of existing threats to digital activism inherent in the current governance structure of the Internet. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I have to thank my parents for their endless love and support throughout my life. The examples you have set have made me who I am today. I hope to follow in your footsteps as intelligent, thoughtful and involved citizens who care deeply about this world and strive to make it a better place. My sister Taylor deserves my wholehearted thanks as well. You have always been a role model to me and your steadfast belief in me has been one of my greatest sources of comfort. I would sincerely like to thank my supervisors, Geoffrey Rockwell and Sourayan Mookerjea, for your guidance and support throughout my writing. Simply put, your comments, questions and gentle prodding made my work better. I would also like to thank Janice Williamson for serving on my panel and for your kindness and insight. To my cohort, Silvia Russell, Joyce Yu, and Shannon Lucky, you kept me sane throughout the journey of graduate school. I know how fortunate I am to have had you three to share this time with. I would like to thank all of my friends for their support but I would like to thank three friends in particular: Kirsten Klingle, Tania Black and Dana Pearson. Your unending encouragement and belief in me has meant more to me than you could ever know. Finally, I would like to thank my best friend Nicholas Downar. Your patience has been unending. You have given me strength when I thought I had none. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 The Changing Realities of Digital Activism ....................................................... 3 A Combined Approach to Methodology ............................................................ 6 Chapter 1: Digital Technology and the Public Sphere ......................................................... 10 Defining Digital Activism ................................................................................. 10 Digital Activism as a Contentious Topic ......................................................... 18 Defining the Public Sphere ............................................................................. 20 Digital Technology and the Public Sphere ...................................................... 29 Chapter 2: Egypt and Tunisia: A Tale of Two Martyrs ......................................................... 40 A Brief History of Tunisia and Egypt ............................................................... 41 Tunisia....................................................................................................... 42 Egypt ......................................................................................................... 44 How Events Unfolded .................................................................................... 48 Back-to-Back Revolutions .............................................................................. 53 Martyrdom...................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 3: Internet Governance for the Future of Digital Activism ..................................... 78 Rapid Change ................................................................................................ 80 Governing the Internet ................................................................................... 86 Multi-Stakeholders ................................................................................... 87 Industry and Nation-States ...................................................................... 93 Netizens .................................................................................................. 103 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 115 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 118 Introduction Somos producto 500 años de lucha - Declaración de la Selva Lacandona, Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional “We are the product of 500 years of struggle” - Declaration of the Lacandon Jungle, Zapatista Army of National Liberation 2 January 19941 On January 1st 1994 the North American Free Trade Agreement went into effect; on that same day the Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) occupied seven towns in the Chiapas region of Mexico with a force of approximately 3,000. In response to the implementation of such neoliberal policies by President Carlos Salinas de Gortari the Declaración was published establishing the insurrectionary state of the EZLN forces and offering a model for society beyond the Mexican state. Salina’s government quickly deployed both air and ground forces in response to this act of defiance. In the recovered territories they conducted interrogations using methods of torture as well as summary executions. An iron fist in the face of revolutionaries was a long-practiced method for the government but this would not last as soon the entire world was watching the unfolding events.2 1 The Zapatista movement represents a number of linguistically diverse indigenous groups predominantly of Mayan descent, mobilizing in response to “500 YEARS OF ROBBERY, MURDER AND DESTRUCTION OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE”.3 Though this was by no means the first instance of indigenous resistance in the region, the work of foreign intermediaries such as NGOs and human-rights activists ensured the EZLN’s plight reached a wider audience. These supporters published the writings of the insurgents via the Internet using email, list-serves and various websites.4 The rapid dissemination of information drew support from concerned citizens in many of the world’s wealthier nations and by 12 January 1994 the army’s operations were suspended and Salina’s government agreed to enter into negotiations with the rebel forces. This episode is often cited as the earliest example of digital activism.5 Manuel Castells, a leading theorist on information societies, has labelled the Zapatista “the first informational guerrilla movement”6 and further highlights the event’s significance: The Zapatistas’ ability to communicate with the world, and with Mexican society, and to capture the imagination of people and of intellectuals, propelled a local, weak insurgent group to the forefront or world politics.7 The goal of my thesis will be to explore the relatively new field of digital activism. This will include debates surrounding its role and effectiveness in modern activist causes as well as the challenges that these new technologies introduce to activism. The theoretical public sphere as put forth by Jürgen Habermas will influence this analysis to gain a critical understanding of the roles of communication and participation in changing social spaces where activism plays an influential role. The Changing Realities of Digital Activism The literature surrounding other commonly cited examples of early instances of digital activism evoke a similar sentiment. In his study of the 1998 lobby against the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Multilateral Agreement on Investments (MAI), Ronald J. Deibert describes the infiltration of the newly arrived citizen network on the scene of global politics. As information about this treaty of trade liberalization was shared over the Internet, rather than amongst traditional media outlets, protest and criticism grew and strengthened the position of the anti-MAI lobby. According to Deibert these networks and their technological capabilities resulted in a fundamental rethinking of the architecture of global politics.8 Soon after occurred the 1999 World Trade Organization meetings and the “Battle of Seattle” when a three-day protest with nearly 500,000 activists