School of Design and Art The significance of knowledge of social contexts to concept development in graphic design practice in New Zealand Stanley Philip Mauger This Thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University of Technology May, 2010 1 To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person, except where due acknowledgement has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at any other university. 2 Abstract This thesis investigates the question; what is the significance that a cross-section of New Zealand graphic designers placed on using knowledge of social contexts to inform their practice? It reveals whether graphic designers in the research, drew on knowledge of social contexts that arose from implicit knowledge, whether they relied on dedicated research to locate knowledge of social contexts and the extent to which that knowledge of social contexts was significant to their practice. The theoretical framework for the research was primarily based on Pierre Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus, social structure and practice, to find the degree to which knowledge of social contexts came out of either a conscious process of enhancing cultural capital in designers’ day-to-day practice, or from dispositions inculcated over designers’ lifetimes through habitus at various levels. Bourdieu’s sociological perspectives are particularly applicable to this research, because of the way in which he places great emphasis on cultural knowledge as the basis of cultural investigation. The ethnographic research modelled on Bourdieu’s methods, in which empirical studies are essential to theoretical research, used conversation analysis in which the reflexivity of the interviewer contributed strongly to the collection of data. The research method was based on a series of seven case studies conducted with New Zealand graphic designers of varying backgrounds and working situations, between 2002 and 2003. The research investigated how they had acquired knowledge of social contexts for practice and the importance that they placed on bringing this knowledge into their practice. The research group ranged from recent graduates to senior and accomplished graphic designers. Graphic designers showed the significance of knowing about social contexts, through the cultural capital that was important to their practice and to their positions in the graphic design field. This research has highlighted the difficulty that designers encountered, to varying degrees, in identifying how knowledge of social contexts came into their practice or even how they had acquired this knowledge. Knowledge of social contexts was shown to be derived from designers’ own social structures and the durable dispositions and practice relative to their background, from the habitus of the internal culture of a designer's firm, from within the wider field of graphic design practice and the changing dispositions arising from it and finally, from graphic designers’ external social worlds. This research suggests that contextual knowledge also needs to be brought into the teaching of graphic design, rather than being seen to arise implicitly in conceptualisation and studio practice. 3 Contents Abstract 3 Contents 4 Acknowledgements 12 Preface 13 Chapter One – Introduction 16 The main research question 16 Aims of the research 16 Research objectives 16 The relevance of knowing about social contexts, in design practice. 17 Theoretical perspectives 18 The significance of the study 18 Thesis outline 20 Chapter Two – Background 23 Changing knowledge for graphic design practice in New Zealand 23 Graphic design practice based on visual standards 24 Graphic design practice and corporate image 24 The influence of the International Style on New Zealand graphic design 24 A changing knowledge base for graphic design practice 25 Audiences and market knowledge 25 The digital age in graphic design 26 Impacts of the computer era on graphic design knowledge 27 Definitions of graphic design 28 Recognition of graphic design expertise by DINZ 29 Accreditation 30 Entry to the graphic design field 31 The promotion of design 32 Relevant knowledge for graphic design tertiary education 32 The commodification of design education 35 The influence of DINZ on design education 36 4 Design and business 37 Government support of design 37 The Design Industry Scoping Review 38 The New Zealand Design Taskforce 38 The creative industries 40 The influence of the business sector on knowledge for practice 40 The integration of design with business through education 41 The business environment 42 Political economy in New Zealand 42 The welfare state and neoliberalism 43 Globalisation and the New Zealand economy 44 The knowledge economy 44 Conclusions 45 Chapter Three - Literature 47 SECTION ONE - The relevance of wider social contexts, to design practice 48 Consumer culture and society 48 The forces of marketing and production 48 Active consumption 49 Cultural economy 49 Lifestyle 50 Taste 50 Cultural mediation 51 Audience values in relationship to consumption 52 Mediating audience belief 53 The value of ethnographic research to know more about consumers 53 Summary 54 SECTION TWO – Graphic design discourses 54 Academic design discourse 54 Design Studies 54 Design history and culture 55 Design critique 56 5 Design education discourses 57 Doctoral and postgraduate design conferences 57 University design education conferences 58 Professional design conferences 58 Individual publications 58 Internal course planning within tertiary design institutions 58 Discourses of the graphic design community 59 International networks for the graphic design profession 62 The influence of business discourses 63 Summary 63 SECTION THREE – Theory and practice 64 Theory and practice 64 What theory may be construed to mean in graphic design 65 Practice 66 Discourse in practice 66 Internalisation of knowledge 68 Bourdieu’s concept of habitus related to practice 69 A theory of practice 70 Field 71 Capital in the field 72 Position-taking 72 Bourdieu’s sociological approach 72 Conclusions 73 Chapter Four – Research Method 75 Research Design 76 Ethnography 76 Reflexiveness 77 Case studies 78 Issues related to interviews 79 Practice influenced by social contexts 79 Positions within the field 80 6 Habitus of the field 80 Reflectivity by graphic designers in the research 81 Description of data collection methods 81 Selection of participants 81 Interviews and data collection 82 Data analysis 83 Discourse analysis 84 A realist approach 85 Theorisation of case commentaries 85 Conclusions 86 Chapter Five - Case studies 88 Gary: Looking beyond media news: implicit knowledge for design practice 89 The design office 89 The designer’s background 90 Social structures and education 93 Early professional experience – habitus and capital 94 Adjusting to change in the field 95 Habitus of the firm 97 Communication of values 98 The significance of a broad knowledge base for practice 99 Cultural capital for practice in the field of graphic design 101 Conclusions 102 Maria: Individualism and social interaction in sole-practice 103 Individualism in sole practice 103 Social space: Bourdieu’s relational approach 104 The significance of place 105 Spatial segregation and independence 106 Early years 107 Move to university and tertiary education 108 The internal social space of publishing firms 110 Work cultures 112 Resources for viable sole practice 113 7 A distinctive approach to practice 116 Conclusions 118 Angie: Working at the level of eclecticism and short of cultural capital 119 Forms of capital 119 Embodied cultural capital 120 Design school education 122 Working situation 123 Assessment of the value of design school education 124 Inability to draw on the cultural capital from design school 125 Resources for design practice 126 Need for social capital 130 Communication problems 131 Reflection on design process 132 New directions 133 Conclusions 133 Warren: Professional knowledge and social capital 135 Home influence on social awareness 136 Cultural interests encouraged 137 Early group awareness 137 Design school education 137 Beta design 140 Work culture and participatory learning 140 Brand development 141 Group values and teamwork 141 Networking 142 Client work 142 Gamma Fashions 143 Social capital 145 Cultural capital from design education 146 The value of theoretical knowledge 146 Resources for practice 148 Reading 149 Conclusions 150 Alan: Web knowledge as a means of entry to the field of graphic design 151 Background 151 Present employment 154 8 Web communities 155 Knowledge of social worlds 156 Lifestyle 157 Practice issues 159 Work examples 159 Client relations 163 Conclusions 165 Luke: Lifestyle knowledge as a prerequisite for practice 167 Cultural mediation 167 Designers as mediators 168 Mediation through advertising 169 Relevance of contributors 169 Designer’s own contribution 170 Social capital 172 Move to America 173 Tertiary education on returning to New Zealand 174 Transition to his own graphic design firm 176 The culture of the firm 177 Creative direction 179 Maintaining values 179 Audience response 181 Conclusions 182 Karl: A marketing approach to design concepts in the field of business 183 Family influences 183 Lifestyle and social knowledge 185 Acquisition of cultural capital 186 Trajectory within the design firm 187 Position-taking 188 Resources 189 Shared cultural capital out of the habitus of