UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN DOCTORAL THESIS Community-Based Co-Design of a Crowdsourcing Task Management Application for Safeguarding Indigenous Knowledge Author: Supervisor: Colin STANLEY Prof. E. BLAKE Prof. H. WINSCHIERS- THEOPHILUS Thesis Presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Science October 19, 2020 iii Declaration of Authorship I, Colin STANLEY, declare that this thesis titled, “Community-Based Co-Design of a Crowdsourcing Task Management Application for Safeguarding Indigenous Knowledge” and the work presented in it are my own. I confirm that: This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research • degree at this University. Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or • any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated. Where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly • attributed. Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. • With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work. I have acknowledged all primary sources of help. • Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have • made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself. Signed: Date: v “There is a famous saying in Otjiherero ‘Okuhena okutjiua kuanjaa esena’ translate as: ‘not knowing has scratched a certain pimple (esena) that should not be scratched, when scratched its poison escalate in your body and might easily kill you.’ In simple terms, this means that without proper prior knowledge before doing something you will do something that might cause you many problems.” Otjiherero proverb vii UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN Abstract Faculty of Science Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Science Doctor of Philosophy Community-Based Co-Design of a Crowdsourcing Task Management Application for Safeguarding Indigenous Knowledge by Colin STANLEY viii Teaching indigenous knowledge (IK) to African youth has become more compli- cated due to a variety of reasons such as urban migration, loss of interest in it, the dominance of scientific knowledge and the technological revolution. There- fore, there is a considerable movement towards using technologies to safeguard IK before it becomes obsolete. It is noteworthy that research conducted and software development perspec- tives being used are mainly based on Western worldviews that are inappropri- ate for African socio-cultural contexts. IK holders are often not in charge of the digitisation process and merely treated as subjects. In this study, we explored a suitable development approach of a crowdsourcing task management applica- tion (TMA) as an auxiliary tool for safeguarding IK. Moreover, the study sought to provide an opportunity for the indigenous communities to make requests of three-dimensional (3D) models of their traditional objects independently. The de- livered traditional 3D models are imported into the communities’ IK visualisation tools used by the IK holders to teach the youth about their cultural heritage. The main objective of this study was to ascertain how the indigenous rural communities could appropriate a foreign technological concept such as crowd- sourcing. This brought about our first research theme: investigating the neces- sary conditions to establish and maintain beneficial embedded community en- gagement. The second theme was to determine the suitable methods for tech- nology co-design. Thirdly, to discover what does the communities’ appropriated crowdsourcing concept entail. We applied a consolidated research method based on Community-based Co- Design (CBCD) extended with Afrocentric research insights and operationalised with Action Research cycle principles of planning, action and reflection. CBCD was conducted in three cycles with Otjiherero speaking indigenous rural com- munities from Namibia. Reflections from the first cycle revealed that the ru- ral communities would require unique features in their crowdsourcing applica- tion. During the second cycle of co-designing with the ovaHimba community, we learnt that CBCD is matured through mutual trust, reciprocity and skills transfer and deconstructing mainstream technologies to spark co-design ideas. Lastly, in our third cycle of CBCD, we showcased that communities of similar cultures and knowledge construction had common ideas of co-designing the TMA. We also simulated that the construction of traditional 3D models requires indige- nous communities to provide insight details of the traditional object to minimise unsatisfactory deliverables. The findings of this study are contributing in two areas (1) research approach and (2) appropriation of technology. We provide a synthesis of Oundu moral values and Afrocentricity as a foundation for conducting Afrocentric research to establish and maintain humanness before CBCD can take place. With those taken as inherent moral values, Afrocentricity should then solely be focused on knowl- edge construction within an African epistemology. For the appropriation of tech- nology, we share co-design techniques on how the indigenous rural communi- ties appropriated the mainstream crowdsourcing concept through local meaning- making. CBCD researchers should incorporate Afrocentricity for mutual learn- ing, knowledge construction, and sharing for the benefit of all. ix Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to give thanks to the Almighty God for his everlasting sacred kindness, love and wisdom granted unto me. I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Prof Edwin Blake and Prof Heike Winschiers-Theophilus for being so patient, believing in me and above all, seeing that this dissertation was a success. I am grateful for their wisdom and time, especially for Skype calls. I am indebted to my colleagues at the Namibia University of Science and Tech- nology who gave me moral and technical support. Prof Anicia Peters for her persistent motivation, Prof Jose Quenum, for hints on the usage of some latex commands, Mr Gereon Koch-Kapuire, Mr Eliaser Mbaeva, Prof Fungai Bhunu Shava, Mr Munyaradzi Maravanyika, Mr Steven Tjiraso and Ms Albertina Shi- longo for their guidance and friendship support. Ms Shilumbe and not forgetting Dr Shawulu Nggada, he has made available his help in many ways. Mr Katongo Lukwesa, Dr Nabil El Ioini and Ms Joy Anurioha for reviewing my work your assistance is highly appreciated. Furthermore, it is a great pleasure to thank all my friends; Phillip Toolu, Thomas Cosmos, Andrew Tjirare, Walter Zaombo, Lawrence Kavezepa, Ketoveni Kahitu, James Mutuku, Andy Ann and Yamiko Msosa for their valuable time, ef- fort and input on this research work. Kondjeni Eliaser, thank you for a job well done for the Ovaherero and Ovahimba homestead drawings. I would also not fail to mention my friends here in the ICT4D lab, Cape Town, to mention but a few, Bhavana Harrilal, Chelsea Wardle, Fiona Ssozi, Lighton Phiri, Blessing Ojeme, Richard Maliwatu, Selvas Mwanza, Eduardo Koloma, Grace Jegede, Kayokwa Chibuye, and Magdeline Lamola thank you for your kindness and expertise. Finally, I would like to thank my wonderful parents and family for their sup- port even though they are still wondering what I was doing for so long. Lilian Mbaeva thank you so much for being there for me, thank you very much for your love and expertise. xi Contents Declaration of Authorship iii Abstract viii Acknowledgements ix Glossary xxi Acronyms xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Chapter Structure . 2 1.2 Background Information . 2 1.2.1 Need for Safeguarding Indigenous Knowledge . 2 1.2.2 Towards the Crowdsourcing System . 3 1.3 Author’s Introspection . 6 1.4 Problem Definition . 8 1.5 Research Methodology . 8 1.6 Research Themes . 9 1.7 Research Steps Taken . 10 1.8 Thesis Contribution . 12 1.9 Thesis Outline . 12 2 Theoretical Context and Related Work 15 2.1 Theoretical Framework . 15 2.1.1 Afrocentrism . 15 2.1.2 Ubuntu . 18 2.2 Indigenous Knowledge . 24 2.2.1 Indigenous Knowledge Definition . 24 2.2.2 African Indigenous versus Western Knowledge . 26 2.2.3 Digitising Indigenous Knowledge for Safeguarding . 27 2.3 Crowdsourcing . 34 2.3.1 Crowdsourcing Definition . 34 2.3.2 Crowdsourcing Taxonomy . 35 2.3.3 Why does the Crowd Contribute? . 39 2.3.4 Crowdsourcing Projects in Intangible Cultural Heritage . 41 2.4 Chapter Conclusion . 43 xii 3 Overview of Research Methodology and Design 45 3.1 Applied Methodology . 45 3.1.1 Application of Afrocentric Research . 45 3.1.2 Research Paradigm . 47 3.1.3 Community-Based . 48 3.1.4 Co-Design . 49 3.1.5 Action Research . 51 3.2 Research Design . 56 3.2.1 Selected Communities . 56 3.2.2 Research Process Overview . 61 3.2.3 Community Engagement . 62 3.2.4 Co-design Methods . 62 3.2.5 Data Collection . 64 3.2.6 Data Analysis . 65 3.3 Ethical Considerations . 65 3.3.1 Ethical Clearance . 66 3.3.2 Informed Consent . 66 3.3.3 Risk of Harm . 66 3.3.4 Honesty and Trust . 67 3.3.5 Privacy, Confidentiality, and Anonymity . 67 3.3.6 Voluntary Participation . 67 3.4 Evaluation of the Research . 67 3.4.1 Credibility . 67 3.4.2 Transferability . 68 3.4.3 Conformability . 69 3.4.4 Dependability . 69 3.5 Chapter Conclusion . 69 4 Crowdsourcing Conceptualisation 71 4.1 Introduction . 71 4.2 Chapter Structure . 72 4.3 Plan for Community-Based Co-design Cycle One . 72 4.4 Cycle One Action . 74 4.4.1 Introducing Crowdsourcing at Ohandungu and Opuwo . 74 4.4.2 Evaluating 3D Models and the HomeSteadCreator . 80 4.4.3 Introducing Crowdsourcing in Okomakuara . 84 4.4.4 Introducing Crowdsourcing in Erindi-Roukambe . 86 4.5 Reflecting on CBCD Cycle One . 89 4.5.1 Reflecting on Ohandungu and Opuwo . 89 4.5.2 Reflecting on Evaluating 3D Models . 90 4.5.3 Reflecting on Crowdsourcing from Okomakuara . 91 4.5.4 Reflecting on Crowdsourcing from Erindi-Roukambe .