ALCALDES OF TOLEDO, BELIZE: THEIR GENEALOGY, CONTESTATION, AND ASPIRATIONS By TIMOTEO R. MESH A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2017 © 2017 Timoteo R. Mesh Te koleloob yook’ol kaab ku tzak uh kuxtaliloob yoolal uh pahtalu kuxtal u palaloob mas maaloob. To women who forgo their life goals so that their children can have better lives. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation project is the culmination of support from multiple friends, family, professors and institutions who believed in its value. In Belize, thanks to the Maya Leaders Alliance (MLA) and the Toledo Alcaldes Association (TAA) for welcoming a long-term research about their struggle. Thanks to the leaders, both female and male, who labor selflessly to secure the future of the “children of our children”. My deepest thanks goes to the chief, Mr. Alfonso Cal, President of the TAA, and Mr. Martin Chen, Chairman of the MLA. Other alcaldes, present and now-ancestors, thank you for your many teachings. To the staff of the MLA, thank you for all your support and care at the Office. My adopted-families in Toledo, including the Garcia-Pops, Mis-Cocs, Magnusson-Cocs, Coc-Bakis, and Mis-Sakuls, I am in debt with your abundant love and care. At the University of Florida, Dr. Maria Stoilkova, my dissertation committee chair, thanks for your unwavering support. Your theoretical nuance and respect for ‘knowledges of the South’ has enriched this dissertation. Dr. Richard Kernaghan, thank you for your rigorous critique and prodding of theoretical boundaries. Dr. Robin Wright, thank you for appreciating alternative ways of understanding indigenous life. Dr. Grenville Barnes, thank you for your generous dedication to the dissertation committee. Your cross-disciplinary insight grounded this project. Dr. Joel Wainwright, thank you for the many conversations about Toledo and Belizean politics. Your years of research among the Maya of Southern Belize elucidated new ways of inquiry. Special gratitude to the women at the Department of Anthropology, UF who diligently ensure that our academic (and at times personal) needs are met on time—with a smile. Thank you for your years of dedicated service to our department, and by 1 extension me. Paul Losch, Chief Librarian at the Latin America Collection, thank you and your staff for your support to my research. My friends at the University of Florida, thank you for great conversations, friendship, and support. Xkox Marcia, Don Bleeh, Xkox Ann and Don Keith, your unquestionable love and support gave solace and joy throughout these years. The last and most special thanks is reserved to the young woman that captured my heart, Jenny. Thank you for loving me, despite my many shortcomings. You have taught me that love is painted the colors, intensities, and abstractions we want. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 1 LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 6 LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... 7 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. 9 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 12 Postcolonial Relationships ...................................................................................... 14 Genealogy of Native Forms of Government and Colonial and Postcolonial Governments ....................................................................................................... 17 Inter-ethnic Politics in Toledo District, Belize .......................................................... 20 Learning What has Value ........................................................................................ 25 Contributions of this Dissertation ...................................................................... 28 2 COLONIAL TECHNOLOGIES: CO-OPTING HIERARCHIES, SECULAR OFFICIALS, TRIBUTE COLLECTION .................................................................... 32 Technology One: “Chiefs and their Wives Should be…Better Treated” .................. 35 Technology Two: First Royal Secular Officials ........................................................ 38 Hierarchies in the Highlands of Guatemala: From Kings to Caciques .................... 41 Technology Three: From Noblemen to Tax and Tribute Collector .......................... 46 Competing Authorities in Verapaz, Guatemala: King Juan Batz ............................. 49 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 57 3 COLONIAL TECHNOLOGIES: SETTLING, ORDERING, AND VIOLENCE ........... 63 Technology Four: Recurrent Settlement ................................................................. 65 Technology Five: Incorporating Native Lands and Peoples via Municipal Councils ............................................................................................................... 72 Technology Six: Violence and Discipline of the 1625 de Paz Ordinances .............. 77 Children...................................................................................................... 80 Racial Monopoly of Trade .......................................................................... 81 Tax and Tribute .......................................................................................... 82 Indigenous Justice ..................................................................................... 83 Morality ...................................................................................................... 86 “…I Flogged them on the Street at their Doorstep. …” ........................................... 88 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 91 3 4 BRITISH COLONIAL ENCOUNTERS WITH NATIVE MUNICIPAL COUNCILS OF YUCATÁN, MÉXICO ......................................................................................... 96 Cacicazgos in the Yucatán Peninsula ................................................................... 100 Native Municipal Councils in the Yucatán Peninsula ............................................ 103 “That the Indigenous do not have the Necessary Aptitude to Continue to Enjoy Rights…” ............................................................................................................ 110 The Belize Settlement ........................................................................................... 114 Municipal Councils Reduced to Alcaldes .............................................................. 116 “An extremely sensitive machinery at our extreme limits”............................... 120 Alcalde Jurisdictions ............................................................................................. 128 Extralegal offices ............................................................................................ 130 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 132 5 INTERMEZZO: ENGAGEMENTS OF THE ALCALDE COUNCIL IN COLONIAL POSTCOLONIAL BELIZE ..................................................................................... 139 Governing Different Races in the Nascent Belize Colony ..................................... 139 Labor Movement, Nationalism, and the Absence of Natives................................. 142 In the colonial society but not of it .................................................................. 144 Alcalde Council Versus Village Council ................................................................ 147 Divergent Native Assimilation in Belize ................................................................. 151 Giving civilization to these Indians .................................................................. 154 Counter-developments ................................................................................... 156 6 INFLORESCENCE OF THE MOPAN AND Q’EQCHI’ SOCIAL MOVEMENT IN TOLEDO, BELIZE ................................................................................................. 161 Nation-state Displacements .................................................................................. 164 Branded by the Government as Subversive ......................................................... 168 A Manifesto, of Sorts............................................................................................. 173 The state purposefully [sought] to co-opt, subvert, and deny [Indian] aspirations ................................................................................................... 176 A Legal Strategy ................................................................................................... 181 We Wanted to Rebuild a Social Movement ........................................................... 186 The Maya Leaders Alliance and the Toledo Alcaldes Association ........................ 194 Walking together ...........................................................................................